Micrurus Mipartitus Research Articles

Unveiling Novel Kunitz- and Waprin-Type Toxins in the Micrurus mipartitus Coral Snake Venom Gland: An In Silico Transcriptome Analysis.

Kunitz-type peptide expression has been described in the venom of snakes of the Viperidae, Elapidae and Colubridae families. This work aimed to identify these peptides in the venom gland transcriptome of the coral snake Micrurus mipartitus. Transcriptomic analysis revealed a high diversity of venom-associated Kunitz serine protease inhibitor proteins (KSPIs). A total of eight copies of KSPIs were predicted and grouped into four distinctive types, including short KSPI, long KSPI, Kunitz-Waprin (Ku-WAP) proteins, and a multi-domain Kunitz-type protein. From these, one short KSPI showed high identity with Micrurus tener and Austrelaps superbus. The long KSPI group exhibited similarity within the Micrurus genus and showed homology with various elapid snakes and even with the colubrid Pantherophis guttatus. A third group suggested the presence of Kunitz domains in addition to a whey-acidic-protein-type four-disulfide core domain. Finally, the fourth group corresponded to a transcript copy with a putative 511 amino acid protein, formerly annotated as KSPI, which UniProt classified as SPINT1. In conclusion, this study showed the diversity of Kunitz-type proteins expressed in the venom gland transcriptome of M. mipartitus.

Kleptoparasitism in Micrurus mipartitus (Squamata, Elapidae) competing for the same Caecilia sp. (Gymnophiona, Caeciliidae) in western Colombia

Kleptoparasitism, or food theft, is seldom reported in wild populations of snakes. Here, we describe as case where two Red-tailed Coral Snakes, Micrurus mipartitus, were observed competing for the same caecilian prey, either Caecilia leucocephala or C. perdita. This took place at night in a rainforest habitat in Valle del Cauca Department, western Colombia. Upon our arrival, the battle had already started as the two coral snakes kept bite-holds on the caecilian. They continued biting the prey at different places on the anterior parts and tugging in opposite directions. The snakes also made rotations along the longitudinal axis as they maintained their bite-holds. Surprisingly, one snake also bit the body of the other snake once. After 17 minutes of observation, the losing coral snake released its bite-hold on the caecilian. The winner then moved away from the losing snake which did not follow. It is well-known that M. mipartitus and other coral snakes eat caecilians, but this is the first observation of kleptoparasitism in elapid snakes in the wild. It is considered likely that they rely on chemoreception when detecting caecilians, notably in this case as two coral snakes detected the same prey item. In general, kleptoparasitism may occur more frequently amongst snakes than indicated by the very few published cases considering that numerous cases from captivity are known.

In-depth immunorecognition and neutralization analyses of Micrurus mipartitus and M. dumerilii venoms and toxins by a commercial antivenom

In Colombia, the Micrurus genus comprises 30 species, including M. mipartitus and M. dumerilii, which are of major clinical relevance due to their wide geographical distribution and the number of snakebites inflicted by them. These neurotoxic envenomations are characterized by neuromuscular paralysis attributed to venom components such as three-finger toxins (3FTx) and phospholipases (PLA2). Additionally, there is limited information available on the neutralizing coverage of commercially available antivenoms, underscoring the need to perform studies to assess the cross-neutralizing ability of these life-saving products. Therefore, we present an in-depth immunorecognition analysis by the anticoral-INS antivenom from Colombia on the M. mipartitus and M. dumerilii venoms. The antivenom cross-recognized the whole venoms and their components with different intensities. For instance, the antivenom showed better recognition on PLA2s than on 3FTxs in both venoms. Moreover, at doses tested, the antivenom totally neutralized the lethal effect of M. dumerilii venom; however, it did not neutralize this effect induced by M. mipartitus venom and its main toxic components from the southwestern region of the department of Antioquia. Furthermore, the anticoral-INS antivenom displayed better cross-immunorecognition of PLA2-predominant Micrurus venoms than of 3FTx-predominant Micrurus venoms. This highlights the need to include venoms from both types of venom patterns in the immunization mixture to produce antivenoms against coral snakes. Finally, our results suggest the need for further research to optimize the composition of immunizing mixtures for antivenom production and improve their efficacy against coral snake envenomation in Colombia and the Americas.

Anti-Neurotoxins from Micrurus mipartitus in the Development of Coral Snake Antivenoms.

In Colombia, the genus Micrurus includes 30 species, of which M. mipartitus and M. dumerilii are the most widely distributed. Micrurus causes less than 3% of the approximately 5000 cases of snakebite per year. The elapid envenomation caused by the snakes from the Micrurus genus, are characterized by the severity of their clinical manifestations, due to the venom neurotoxic components such as three-finger toxins (3FTx) and phospholipases (PLA2). The treatment for snakebites is the administration of specific antivenoms, however, some of them have limitations in their neutralizing ability. A strategy proposed to improve antivenoms is to produce antibodies against the main components of the venom. The aim of this work was to produce an antivenom, using an immunization protocol including the main 3FTx and PLA2 responsible for M. mipartitus lethality. The antibody titers were determined by ELISA in rabbits’ serum. The immunized animals elicited a response against toxins and whole venom. The Immunoglobulin G (IgGs) obtained were able to neutralize the lethal effect of their homologous toxins. A combination of antivenom from M. mipartitus with antitoxins improved their neutralizing ability. In the same way, a mixture of anti 3FTx and PLA2 protected the mice from a 1.5 median lethal dose (LD50) of M. mipartitus venom. The results showed that this might be a way to improve antibody titers specificity against the relevant toxins in M. mipartitus venom and indicated that there is a possibility to develop and use recombinant 3FTx and PLA2 toxins as immunogens to produce antivenoms. Additionally, this represents an alternative to reduce the amount of venom used in anti-coral antivenom production.

Immunological cross-recognition and neutralization studies of Micrurus mipartitus and Micrurus dumerilii venoms by two therapeutic equine antivenoms

New world Coral snakes comprise 82 species of medical importance distributed from southeastern United States to Argentina. In Colombia, Micrurus mipartitus and M. dumerilii are responsible for most coral snakebite accidents. Although infrequent, the severity of these envenomings, as well as the limited information available on the neutralizing coverage of commercially available antivenoms, underscores the need to perform studies to assess the cross-neutralizing ability of these life-saving immunobiologicals. In the present work, we evaluated the cross-recognition and neutralization ability of two equine therapeutic antivenoms: PROBIOL and SAC-ICP. PROBIOL antivenom showed cross-recognition towards both M. mipartitus and M. dumerilii venoms, with a significantly higher binding to the latter in both whole-venom ELISA and fractionated-venom immunoprofiling. In contrast, SAC-ICP antivenom cross-recognized M. dumerilii venom, but not that of M. mipartitus. Lethality of M. dumerilii venom was neutralized by both antivenoms, with a slightly higher potency for the SAC-ICP antivenom. However, the lethality of M. mipartitus venom was not neutralized by any of the two antivenoms. Results uncover the need to include M. mipartitus venom, or its most relevant toxins, in the production of coral snake antivenoms to be used in Colombia, to assure the neutralizing coverage for this species.

Novel three-finger toxins from Micrurus dumerilii and Micrurus mipartitus coral snake venoms: Phylogenetic relationships and characterization of Clarkitoxin-I-Mdum

Micrurus mipartitus and M. dumerilii are the most medically important coral snakes in Colombia. Proteomic characterization of their venoms has previously shown that proteins of the three-finger toxin (3FTx) family are abundant components, especially in M. mipartitus (61%) and to a lesser extent in M. dumerilii (28%). In order to increase knowledge on these toxins, in this work a major 3FTx of M. dumerilii venom (8% of the venom proteins), named Clarkitoxin-I-Mdum, was isolated and characterized. Its amino acid sequence comprises 66 residues, with an isotope-averaged molecular mass of 7537 ± 2 Da and a theoretical pI of 9.36, presenting the conserved pattern of eight cysteines that classifies it as a short-chain (type I) 3FTx. Clarkitoxin-I-Mdum was not lethal to mice by intravenous or intracerebroventricular route and was not cytolytic to myogenic cells in vitro. On the other hand, five coding sequences for 3FTxs were obtained from the venom gland of M. mipartitus. These novel toxin sequences were named Mm3FTx-01 to Mm3FTx-05, all of them also presenting the eight conserved cysteines of short-chain 3FTxs. Phylogenetic analysis revealed high variability of 3FTxs from Micrurus, and ELISA using antibodies raised to the major 3FTxs from M. mipartitus and M. dumerilii confirmed their immunochemical divergence. These results highlight the relevance of performing further studies aiming at a deeper understanding of the functional and antigenic relationships among specific Micrurus toxins, with important implications for the production of antivenoms.

L-amino acid oxidase isolated from Micrurus mipartitus snake venom (MipLAAO) specifically induces apoptosis in acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells mostly via oxidative stress-dependent signaling mechanism

The effect of Micrurus mipartitus snake venom as a therapeutic alternative for T-acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is still unknown. This study was aimed to evaluate the cytotoxic effect of M. mipartitus snake venom and a new L-amino acid oxidase (LAAO), named MipLAAO, on human peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL) and on T-ALL cells (Jurkat), and its mechanism of action. PBL and Jurkat cells were treated with venom and MipLAAO, and morphological changes in the cell nucleus/DNA, mitochondrial membrane potential, levels of intracellular reactive oxygen species and cellular apoptosis markers were determined by fluorescence microscopy, flow cytometry and pharmacological inhibition. Venom and MipLAAO induced apoptotic cell death in Jurkat cells, but not in PBL, in a dose-response manner. Additionally, venom and MipLAAO increased dichlorofluorescein fluorescence intensity, indicative of H2O2 production, increased DJ-1 Cys106-sulfonate, as a marker of intracellular stress and induced the up-regulation of PUMA, p53 and phosphorylation of c-JUN. Additionally, it increased the expression of apoptotic CASPASE-3. In conclusion, M. mipartitus venom and MipLAAO selectively induces apoptosis in Jurkat cells through a H2O2-mediated signaling pathway dependent mostly on CASPASE-3 pathway. Our findings support the potential use of M. mipartitus snake venom compounds as a potential treatment for T-ALL.

Primary structures and partial toxicological characterization of two phospholipases A2 from Micrurus mipartitus and Micrurus dumerilii coral snake venoms

Snake venom phospholipases A2 (PLA2) share high sequence identities and a conserved structural scaffold, but show important functional differences. Only a few PLA2s have been purified and characterized from coral snake (Micrurus spp.) venoms, and their role in envenomation remains largely unknown. In this report, we describe the isolation, sequencing and partial functional characterization of two Micrurus PLA2s: MmipPLA2 from Micrurus mipartitus and MdumPLA2 from Micrurus dumerilii, two species of clinical importance in Colombia. MmipPLA2 consisted of 119 amino acid residues with a predicted pI of 8.4, whereas MdumPLA2 consisted of 117 residues with a pI of 5.6. Both PLA2s showed the conserved 'group I' cysteine pattern and were enzymatically active, although MdumPLA2 had higher activity. The two enzymes differed notably in their toxicity, with MmipPLA2 being highly lethal to mice and mildly myotoxic, whereas MdumPLA2 was not lethal (up to 3 μg/g body weight) but strongly myotoxic. MdumPLA2 displayed higher anticoagulant activity than MmipPLA2in vitro and caused more sustained edema in the mouse footpad assay. Neither of these enzymes was cytolytic to cultured skeletal muscle C2C12 myotubes. Based on their structural differences, the two enzymes were placed in separate lineages in a partial phylogeny of Micrurus venom PLA2s and this classification agreed with their divergent biological activities. Overall, these findings highlight the structural and functional diversity of Micrurus venom PLA2s.

Case history. “Coral snake” Micrurus mipartitus bite in 1968. A herpetologist's ordeal

Historical clinical case that presented back in 1968 at a time when respiratory support and intensive care techniques were just emerging, with many shortcomings in hospital care areas and monitoring devices. The case is of a 58 year-old patient, outstanding citizen, recent winner in a television contest on snakes, who was bitten accidentally by a coral snake Micrurus mipartitus. The poison of this snake is a macromolecule that induces complete depolarizing muscle blockade which, if not reverted, leads to death from respiratory failure. A group of social leaders in the region managed to obtain the specific anti-venom that was not produced in the country, as well as the mechanical ventilation equipment, a negative pressure “iron lung” and a Bird Mark 7 positive pressure device. Manual ventilation was initiated by the anaesthesia team with the support of the medical students. Then, with the Bird Mark 7, the patient survived under empirical “intensive” care after 17 days of respiratory depression and 33 days in the hospital. Voluntary contributions of the community in an effort to solve the clinical problem are narrated.

Caso clínico histórico. Mordedura de serpiente «rabo de ají» en el año de 1968. Viacrucis de un herpetólogo

Historical clinical case that presented back in 1968 at a time when respiratory support and intensive care techniques were just emerging, with many shortcomings in hospital care areas and monitoring devices. The case is of a 58 year-old patient, outstanding citizen, recent winner in a television contest on snakes, who was bitten accidentally by a coral snake Micrurus mipartitus. The poison of this snake is a macromolecule that induces complete depolarizing muscle blockade which, if not reverted, leads to death from respiratory failure. A group of social leaders in the region managed to obtain the specific anti-venom that was not produced in the country, as well as the mechanical ventilation equipment, a negativepressure «iron lung» and a Bird Mark 7 positive pressure device. Manual ventilation was initiated by the anaesthesia team with the support of the medical students. Then, with the Bird Mark 7, the patient survived under empirical «intensive» care after 17 days of respiratory depression and 33 days in the hospital. Voluntary contributions of the community in an effort to solve the clinical problem are narrated.

Serpentes do Estado de Rondônia, Brasil

Esse estudo teve como objetivo atualizar a lista de serpentes do estado de Rondônia a partir de levantamento bibliográfico, e fornecer algumas informações sobre a distribuição das espécies. São registradas para o estado de Rondônia 118 espécies de serpentes, pertencentes a oito famílias: Leptotyphlopidae (4 espécies), Typhlopidae (1), Aniliidae (1), Boidae (6), Colubridae (21), Dipsadidae (67), Elapidae (9) e Viperidae (9). Dessas, 109 foram registradas para áreas de floresta amazônica e 27 em cerrado. A menor riqueza encontrada em cerrado (27 espécies) provavelmente deve estar associada aos poucos trabalhos desenvolvidos nessas áreas e pelo fato dessa formação vegetal ocupar uma área de cerca de apenas 5% do estado. Nove espécies (Epicrates crassus, Chironius flavolineatus, Drymoluber brazili, Apostolepis striata, Oxyrhopus rhombifer, Pseudoboa nigra, Xenodon merremii, Bothrops mattogrossensis e Crotalus durissus) foram registradas exclusivamente em áreas de cerrado, sendo formas associadas a esse ambiente na Amazônia. Seis espécies (Masticophis mentovarius, Apostolepis striata, Erythrolamprus mimus, Micrurus mipartitus, Micrurus sp. e Bothrocophias microphthalmus) são conhecidas no Brasil apenas para Rondônia. Existem lacunas sobre o conhecimento das serpentes em algumas regiões de Rondônia, sendo essencial a realização de mais estudos de inventário. Tal necessidade se torna mais urgente devido à crescente destruição dos habitats ao longo do Cerrado e nas porções sul da Amazônia.

Mipartoxin-I, a novel three-finger toxin, is the major neurotoxic component in the venom of the redtail coral snake Micrurus mipartitus (Elapidae)

The major venom component of Micrurus mipartitus, a coral snake distributed from Nicaragua to northern South America, was characterized biochemically and functionally. This protein, named mipartoxin-I, is a novel member of the three-finger toxin superfamily, presenting the characteristic cysteine signature and amino acid sequence length of the short-chain, type-I, α-neurotoxins. Nevertheless, it varies considerably from related toxins, with a sequence identity not higher than 70% in a multiple alignment of 67 proteins within this family. Its observed molecular mass (7030.0) matches the value predicted by its amino acid sequence, indicating lack of post-translational modifications. Mipartoxin-I showed a potent lethal effect in mice (intraperitoneal median lethal dose: 0.06 μg/g body weight), and caused a clear neuromuscular blockade on both avian and mouse nerve-muscle preparations, presenting a post-synaptic action through the cholinergic nicotinic receptor. Since mipartoxin-I is the most abundant (28%) protein in M. mipartitus venom, it should play a major role in its toxicity, and therefore represents an important target for developing a therapeutic antivenom, which is very scarce or even unavailable in the regions where this snake inhabits. The structural information here provided might help in the preparation of a synthetic or recombinant immunogen to overcome the limited venom availability.

Neuromuscular activity of the venoms of the Colombian coral snakes Micrurus dissoleucus and Micrurus mipartitus: An evolutionary perspective

The venoms of coral snakes (genus Micrurus) are known to induce a broad spectrum of pharmacological activities. While some studies have investigated their potential human effects, little is known about their mechanism of action in terms of the ecological diversity and evolutionary relationships among the group. In the current study we investigated the neuromuscular blockade of the venom of two sister species Micrurus mipartitus and Micrurus dissoleucus, which exhibit divergent ecological characteristics in Colombia, by using the chick biventer cervicis nerve-muscle preparation. We also undertook a phylogenetic analysis of these species and their congeners, in order to provide an evolutionary framework for the American coral snakes. The venom of M. mipartitus caused a concentration-dependant inhibition (3–10 μg/ml) of nerve-mediated twitches and significantly inhibited contractile responses to exogenous ACh (1 mM), but not KCl (40 mM), indicating a postsynaptic mechanism of action. The inhibition of indirect twitches at the lower venom dose (3 μg/ml) showed to be triphasic and the effect was further attenuated when PLA2 was inhibited. M. dissoleucus venom (10–50 μg/ml) failed to produce a complete blockade of nerve-mediated twitches within a 3 h time period and significantly inhibited contractile responses to exogenous ACh (1 mM) and KCl (40 mM), indicating both postsynaptic and myotoxic mechanisms of action. Myotoxic activity was confirmed by morphological studies of the envenomed tissues. Our results demonstrate a hitherto unsuspected diversity of pharmacological actions in closely related species which exhibit divergent ecological characteristics; these results have important implications for both the clinical management of Coral snake envenomings and the design of Micrurus antivenom.

Proteomic and biological characterization of the venom of the redtail coral snake, Micrurus mipartitus (Elapidae), from Colombia and Costa Rica

Venoms of the redtail coral snake Micrurus mipartitus from Colombia and Costa Rica were analyzed by "venomics", a proteomic strategy to determine their composition. Proteins were separated by RP-HPLC, followed by SDS-PAGE, in-gel tryptic digestion, identification by MALDI or ESI tandem mass spectrometry, and assignment to known protein families by similarity. These analyses were complemented with a characterization of venom activities in vitro and in vivo. Proteins belonging to seven families were found in Colombian M. mipartitus venom, including abundant three-finger toxins (3FTx; ~60% of total proteins) and phospholipases A(2) (PLA(2); ~30%), with the remaining ~10% distributed among l-amino acid oxidase, P-III metalloproteinase, Kunitz-type inhibitor, serine proteinase, and C-type lectin-like families. The venoms of two M. mipartitus specimens from Costa Rica, also referred to as M. multifasciatus in some taxonomic classifications, were also analyzed. Both samples were highly similar to each other, and partially resembled the chromatographic and identity profiles of M. mipartitus from Colombia, although presenting a markedly higher proportion of 3FTxs (~83.0%) in relation to PLA(2)s (~8.2%), and a small amount of acetylcholinesterase, not detected in the venom from Colombia. An equine antivenom against the Central American coral snake, M. nigrocinctus, did not recognize venom components of M. mipartitus from Colombia or Costa Rica by enzyme-immunoassay. Four major components of Colombian M. mipartitus venom were isolated and partially characterized. Venomics of Micrurus species may provide a valuable platform for the rational design of immunizing cocktails to obtain polyspecific antivenoms for this highly diverse group of American elapids.

Inhibition of the Toxic Effects of Lachesis muta, Crotalus durissus cumanensis and Micrurus mipartitus Snake Venoms by Plant Extracts

The ethanol extracts of eight plants utilized against snakebites by traditional healers in Colombia (Pleopeltis percussa, Trichomanes elegans, Brownea rosademonte, Tabebuia rosea, Heliconia curtispatha, Bixa orellana, Renealmia alpinia and Citrus limon) were examined for their possible inhibitory ability against the venoms of Lachesis muta, Crotalus durissus cumanensis, and Micrurus mipartitus. Extracts were preincubated with 1.5 LD50 of each venom, and injected by the intraperitoneal route, in mice. Under these conditions, the lethal effect of L. muta venom was neutralized by all of the extracts, whereas C. d. cumanensis and M. mipartitus venoms were inhibited by six extracts, exceptions being P. percussa and C. limon. In addition, the myotoxic activity of C. d. cumanensis venom was neutralized by the extracts of H. curtispatha, B. rosademonte, P. percussa, and T. elegans. The neutralizing ability of the plant extracts was also evaluated by independent administration experiments. Extracts were injected by intravenous or i.m. (in situ) routes, immediately after the i.p or i.m. injection of 1.5 LD50 of venom, respectively. Under such conditions, their neutralizing efficacy was significantly reduced, and in some cases disappeared. Nevertheless, in situ administration of B. rosademonte, H. curthispatha, P. percussa, and T. elegans extracts still caused a partial but significant inhibition of the lethal effect of C. d. cumanensis venom, and the first three extracts reduced significantly the development of myonecrosis. These results identify useful plant species for future purification of venom-neutralizing components that might become helpful in the development of supplementary therapies against snakebites.

Efectos farmacologicos y enzimaticos de los venenos de serpientes de Antioquia y Choco (Colombia)

We compared several pharmacological and enzymatic effects induced by 11 snake venoms from seven species, six of them from different geographic areas of Antioquia and Choco, north-west of Colombia, South America ( Bothrops atrox, B. nasutus, B. schlegelii, B. punctatus, Lachesis muta, Micrurus mipartitus), and Crotalus durissus terrificus venom, from specimens captured in other provinces of the country (Tolima, Huila, Meta and Atlantico). Differences were observed in edema-forming, hemorrhage, defibrination, indirect hemolysis, myonecrosis, proteolysis and lethal activity between venoms from different genera or species, as well as according to the geographic area of origin in B. atrox and B. nasutus snake venoms. Bothrops venoms, in particular B. atrox and L. muta, produced major local effects. All of the venoms, including M. mipartitus, had myotoxic effects. The most defibrinating venoms were B. atrox, L. muta, B. punctatus and C. d. terrificus. All of the venoms had indirect hemolytic activity; the venom of M. mipartitus being greatest. The most lethal venoms were those of C. d. terrificus and M. mipartitus. Within Bothrops species, the venom of B. schlegelii was the least active in terms of local and systemic pathologic effects.

The status of Pliocercus and Urotheca (Serpentes: Colubridae), with a review of included species of coral snake mimics

The generic name Urotheca Bibron, 1843 is revived for a group of Neotropical colubrid snakes diagnosed by a long, thickened but fragile tail and the presence of a specialized naked pocket on the asulcate surface of the hemipenial capitulum. Urotheca includes those species previously placed in the lateristriga group of the genus Rhadinaea and the coral snake mimics usually referred to the genus Pliocercus. The many names based upon the coral snake mimics are shown to represent two species at most: Urotheca elapoides, a bicolour (red and black) or tricolour (red, yellow and black) banded or ringed form found in Mexico and northern Central America and U. euryzona, which is usually bicolour (red, yellow or white and black) and ranges from Nicaragua to western Ecuador. Coloration in U. elapoides resembles closely that of sympatric species of venomous coral snakes. Local variation in coloration and a geographic trend in the colour of the light rings (usually red in the north, white to the south) in U. euryzona parallels similar colour variation in the sympatric venomous coral snake Micrurus mipartitus. These patterns of variation add strong support to the idea that the two species are mimics of the highly venomous coral snakes. Urotheca, including the non-mimetic species U. decipiens, U. fulmceps, U. guentheri, U. lateristriga, U. multilineata and U. pachyura, shares the characteristic of a very long and disproportionately thickened and fragile tail with the coral snake mimics of the distantly related genus Scapkiodontophis. Members of both genera have a very high proportion (about 50%) of the tails broken indicating a probable predator escape device. Breakage is intercentral, with a calcified cap developing over the tip of the distal surface of the new terminal vertebra unlike the situation in many lizards where there is an intracentral fracture septum and the tail is regenerated.

Incubación de los huevos y nacimiento en la coral gargantilla, Micrurus mipartitus hertwigi (Serpentes: Elapidae) en Costa Rica

The first observations of incubation and hatching in Micrurus mipartitus are presented. A single female layed 18 eggs on January 28, 1982. They measured 23. 1 ± 2. 14 by 13.8 ± 1.67 mm. Mate and female neonates have the same coloration pattern of the mother.

The production and characteristics of a coral snake ( Micrurus mipartitus hertwigi) antivenin

R. Bolaños, L. Cerdas, and R. Taylor. The production and characteristics of a coral snake ( Micrurus mipartitus hertwigi) antivenin. Toxicon 13, 139–142, 1975—An antivenin against Micrurus mipartitus hertwigi was prepared in a horse employing subcutaneous inoculations of venom in sodium alginate and Freund's complete adjuvant. The antivenin, refined with ammonium sulfate and freeze dried, neutralizes (per ml) 450 μg of the homologous venom, 100–150 μg of M. m. anomalus venom from Colombia, 250 μg of M. carinicaudus dumerilii venom and 75 μg of M. alleni venoms.