Microstructure Of Surface Layer Research Articles

Relating contact temperature and wear transitions in a wheel–rail contact

Earlier in an ongoing research project, we identified wear transitions, mechanisms, and regimes by experimentally testing the sliding part of a wheel–rail contact. Going further, the present study investigates the effects of elevated contact temperature and severe contact conditions corresponding to those of a wheel flange–gauge corner contact. Prior studies discussed wear in terms of contact pressure, amount and type of lubricant, sliding velocity, generated airborne particles, wear depth, coefficient of friction, and topographical measurements. This study shifts the focus to contact temperature, elemental and morphological analysis of the airborne particles, and surface-layer microstructure of test specimens by using several analytical techniques (i.e., SEM, FIB, ESCA, and energy mapping). As contact severity increased, the bulk temperature of the contacting bodies increased rapidly; this can be related to elevated contact temperature by judging the size and shape of the ultrafine particles generated. After test runs, the contacting bodies were analysed, revealing microstructural surface layer changes and differences in the amount of oxide formed in the immediate surface. When the sliding part of the wheel–rail contact under severe contact conditions is experimentally simulated using pin-on-disc methodology, the discussion shifts from analyzing steady-state measurements, such as average wear rate, to more transient behaviours during running-in. Wear transitions occurring during running-in are decisive for the outcome of the rest of the test run, according to the present results.

Microstructure of laser boronized nodular iron

Nodular iron was laser boronized by a CO2 molecular laser with a continuous wave. Parameters of laser treatment have been selected in an appropriate way to achieve different cooling rates for the melting zone. The surface layer microstructure of nodular iron after laser boronizing has been investigated by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction. Different microstructures in melted zones have been observed for different cooling rates. The polygonal shape of the Fe2B phase (typical for Fe2B after laser boronizing) has been found in the melted zone cooled at 103°C/s. Fe2B borides have been confirmed by X-ray diffraction. An ultra-fine microstructure has been found in the melted zone cooled at the rate of 8×103°C/s in contrary to the previous one. In this case, the X-ray diffraction revealed higher amounts of hard phases such as Fe2B and Fe3C. The microhardness of the melted zone cooled at 8×103°C/s was approximately 1300HV0.1 while in the case of 103°C/s the cooling rate microhardness was lower— approximately 1100HV0.1.

Ni Content Surface Layer Produced by Laser Surface Treatment on Amorphisable Cu Base Alloy

The aim of our research was to comparatively examine Ni content surface layers on amorphisable Cu base alloy produced by different laser surface treatments. Laser surface treatment (LST) techniques, such as laser surface melting, laser alloying and laser cladding, provide a wide range of interesting solutions for the production of wear and corrosion resistant surfaces. [1,2] With LST techniques, the surface can be: i) coated with a layer of another material by laser cladding, ii) the composition of the matrix can be modified by laser alloying. [3] Two kinds of laser surface treatment technologies were used. In the case of coating-melting technology a Ni content surface layer was first developed by galvanization, and then the Ni content layer was melted together with the matrix. In the case of powder blowing technology Ni3Al powder was blown into the layer melted by laser beam and Argon gas. LST was performed using an impulse mode Nd:YAG laser. The laser power and the interaction time were 2 kW and 20÷60 ms. The characterization of the surface layer microstructure was performed by XRD, scanning electron microscopy and microhardness measurements.

Microstructure and microhardness analysis of the hexagonal oxides formed on the surface of the AISI 304 stainless steel after Nd:YAG pulsed laser surface melting

The laser surface melting (LSM) technique was adopted to modify the surface layer microstructure of the AISI 304 stainless steel in this paper. The results showed that the hexagonal morphologies have been successfully fabricated on the surface after LSM. These hexagons had side lengths of about 0.5–1 μm and were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM), field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) and high resolution transmission electron microscope (HRTEM). It was proved by the XRD that the stainless steel surface mainly consisted of γ-Fe, Cr 2O 3, Fe 2O 3 and some manganese oxides. The FESEM micrographs showed that the hexagonal oxides were regular hexagons in geometry. The HRTEM micrographs also indicated the presence of the hexagons on the surface of the stainless steel. The spacing values were calculated from the HRTEM micrograph and the SAED pattern, and the hexagonal oxide phases determined by these spacing values were consistent with those verified by the XRD. After LSM, the microhardness of the stainless steel was significantly improved.

Ion Nitriding of CoCrMo Alloys

Medical grade cast CoCrMo alloy (F75) was ion nitrided under different process parameters including time (2, 9 hr) and temperature (600, 800 0C) at a gas mixture of 80%N2–20%H2. The nitrided surfaces were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). MicroVickers hardness tests were done on the cross sections of the nitrided specimens to investigate the hardness profile. The significant effects of nitriding temperature and time on the microstructure and hardness value of nitrided surface layers were displayed.

Surface-layer microstructure control for metastable austenitic stainless steel to prevent hydrogen permeation

Solution nitriding was applied to type 304 stainless steel plate to make the austenite phase in the surface layer stable against cold rolling. Through this treatment, we could produce a structure-gradient stainless steel plate where an austenitic structure exists in the surface layer while a large fraction of deformation-induced martensitic structure is dispersed inside the plate. This surface-layer microstructure control significantly suppressed the permeation of hydrogen from the atomosphere owing to the low diffusivity of hydrogen in the stable austenitic surface layer.

The vacancy defect clusters in polycrystalline pure nickle induced by high-current pulsed electron beam

High-current pulsed electron beam (HCPEB) technique is employed to irradiate the samples of polycrystalline pure nickel. The microstructures of the irradiated surface layers are investigated by using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). After HCPEB irradiation, very high value of residual stress is induced in the irradiated surface layer, which leads to the formation of dense dislocation walls and twins. Furthermore, a larger number of vacancy defect clusters including dislocation loops, stacking fault tetrahedra (SFT) and voids are also formed. Among three vacancy defect clusters, the number of SFT is much more than that of two other vacancy defect clusters. The lower dislocation density near the regions with dense SFT is observed and voids are likely to be present in these regions. It suggests that the stress with very high value and strain rate induced by rapid heating and cooling due to HCPEB irradiation could cause the shifting of the whole atomic plane synchronously.

The effect of topsoil removal in restored heathland on soil fauna, topsoil microstructure, and cellulose decomposition: implications for ecosystem restoration

Communities of soil macrofauna, oribatid mites, and nematodes as well as vegetation and soil chemistry were studied on twelve plots representing three replicates of the following treatments: agricultural meadow, heathland, and heathland restored either by partial or complete topsoil removal 15 years earlier. We also studied the effect of soil macrofauna on decomposition and the microstructure of the soil surface layer with litterbags in combination with the analysis of thin soil sections. The communities of soil macrofauna and oribatid mites significantly differed between agricultural meadows and heathlands. The partial and complete topsoil removal plots were more similar to heathlands with respect to macrofauna and to agricultural meadows with respect to oribatid mites. The density and diversity of soil macrofauna was higher in agricultural meadows than in heathlands; in particular, earthworms, litter transformers, root feeders, and microsaprophags were more abundant on meadows. Heathlands, in contrast, contained a much higher diversity of oribatid mites. The community structure of nematodes did not significantly differ among the treatments. Analysis of thin soil sections revealed a thick organic fermentation layer in heathlands, which was absent in agricultural meadows and only weakly developed in the topsoil removal plots. In agricultural meadows, litterbags and thin soil sections indicated that abundant macrofauna, including endogeic earthworms, were very effective in removing the litter from the soil surface and mixing it into the mineral soil. Possible effects of this soil mixing on restoration success are discussed.

Plasma immersion ion implantation induced improvements of mechanical properties, wear resistance, and adhesion of diamond-like carbon films deposited on tool steel

Nitrogen-rich layers are formed on the surface of JIS-SKH51 tool steel substrates using the plasma immersion ion implantation (PIII) technique. An unbalanced magnetron sputtering (UBMS) system is then used to coat the steel substrates with diamond-like carbon (DLC) films of various thicknesses. The adhesive strength and wear resistance of the DLC films are then examined by performing nanoscratch and nanowear tests. Finally, the microstructures of the DLC films are analyzed using TEM and Raman spectroscopy. The nanoindentation test results show that the PIII treatment yields an effective improvement in both the hardness and the Young's modulus of the SKH51 substrates. Moreover, cross-sectional observations show that the implantation depth and microstructure of the nitrogen-rich surface layer are dependent on the nitrogen/hydrogen flow ratio used in the PIII process. The nanoscratch test results show that the PIII treatment improves the adhesion of the DLC film to the steel substrate. Furthermore, the Raman spectroscopy results indicate that the use of hydrogen in the PIII process limits the increase in the I(D)/ I(G) ratio by increasing the DLC film thickness. Finally, the nanowear test results show that the deposition of a DLC coating with a sufficient thickness yields a significant improvement in the wear resistance of the steel substrate.

Microstructure and phase composition of microarc oxidation surface layers formed on aluminium and its alloys 2214-T6 and 7050-T74

The influence of substrate on the microstructure and phase composition of surface layers synthesised by microarc oxidation (MAO) on aluminium and its alloys 2214-T6 and 7050-T74 is studied using scanning (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) as well as cross-sectional X-ray diffraction. MAO layers are composed of three layers and are mainly made of gamma-Al 2O 3 and alpha-Al 2O 3 phases. The proportion of each phase depends on the substrate. The external porous layer is mainly composed of the gamma-Al 2O 3 phase. The internal dense layer can present two aspects according to the percentage of the alpha-Al 2O 3 phase. The so-called granular aspect indicates a high proportion of “dendrite” defect which results from discharge formation and implies a high percentage of the alpha-Al 2O 3 phase. The so-called columnar aspect indicates a high proportion of “small channels” associated with a very weak percentage in the alpha-Al 2O 3 phase. In the latter, it is believed that a Zn alloying element can inhibit the growth of alpha-Al 2O 3. During the MAO process, discharges likely occur in the vicinity of the MAO layer/substrate interface, probably in the spherical porosities that result from oxygen generated in the thin layer localised at the interface.

Treatment of Surface Properties of Titanium with Plasma (Ion) Nitriding

In order to improve the poor surface hardness and the wear resistance, titanium has been nitrided with plasma (ion) nitriding which is one of the methods to treat surface properties of titanium alloys. The increment at surface hardness and so the wear resistance of nitrided titanium alloys has been provided by means of compound layer (ε-Ti2N+δ-TiN) and diffusion zone (α-Ti) occurred by plasma ion nitriding. The goal of the present paper is to investigate effects of nitriding temperature and nitriding time on the microstructure and hardness value of nitrided surface layers. A systematic study was undertaken with specimens of commercial pure Ti and Ti-6Al-4V alloy. As treatment parameters, we have used; nitriding time (from 2 to 9 hour), nitriding atmosphere (H2-80%N2), total pressure (1 kPa) and cathode temperature (from 600 to 800 oC). The Vickers indenter was used for analysis of the micro hardness measurements. The thin hardened layer at the nitrided surface was characterized by glancing-angle X-ray difractometer. X-ray diffraction analysis has confirmed the formation of ε-Ti2N and δ-TiN phases on the nitrided specimens. Experimental details and characterization of plasma (ion) nitrided titanium have reported and discussed.

Microstructure of Surface and Subsurface Layers of a Ni-Ti Shape Memory Microwire

The microstructure of a 55 microm diameter, cold-worked Ni-Ti microwire is investigated by different transmission electron microscopy techniques. The surface consists of a few hundred nanometer thick oxide layer composed of TiO and TiO2 with a small fraction of inhomogeneously distributed Ni. The interior of the wire has a core-shell structure with primarily B2 grains in the 1 microm thick shell, and heavily twinned B19' martensite in the core. This core-shell structure can be explained by a concentration gradient of the alloying elements resulting in a structure separation due to the strong temperature dependence of the martensitic start temperature. Moreover, in between the B2 part of the metallic core-shell and the oxide layer, a Ni3Ti interfacial layer is detected.

Spark plasma sintering as a reactive sintering tool for the preparation of surface-tailored Fe–FeAl 2O 4–Al 2O 3 nanocomposites

Al1.86Fe0.14O3 powders were partially or totally reduced in H2. The fully reduced Fe–Al2O3 nanocomposite powder was sintered by spark plasma sintering (SPS) without any reaction taking place. For the other powders, the SPS induced the formation of FeAl2O4 and sometimes Fe. The most severe reducing conditions were found at the surface of the materials, producing nanocomposites with a surface layer composition and microstructure different to those of the core. This in situ formed composite layer confers a higher hardness and fracture strength.

Microstructure and residual stresses in surface layer of simultaneously laser alloyed and burnished steel

The new hybrid method, which combines the laser alloying process with slide burnishing, was investigated and presented in the work. Both treatments were performed on the laser stage in one operation. The experiments were done on carbon steel alloyed with cobalt stellite. The alloying process was conducted with continuous laser CO 2, at different parameters. The single- and multiple-path processes were investigated. The microstructure, microhardness and residual stresses of surface layer after the laser alloying process and laser alloying combined with burnishing were presented. The results of the experimental studies have shown that the proposed new hybrid method allowed for the generation of compressive stresses in surface layer of the alloyed material. The structural analysis has proven that the burnishing process had caused deformation of grains in the 20–30 μm thick zone and increased microhardness of the surface zone material. The X–ray diffraction measurements of residual stresses in surface layer of the samples subjected to the alloying process and burnishing, both in cold and hot conditions, were performed. In the case of multiple-path laser alloying treatment the tensile stresses, approximately 500 MPa, were obtained at the surface. Multiple alloying combined with burnishing generated compressive stresses of about −600 MPa at the surface, substantially improving the surface layer.

Formation and Control of 40Cr Grind-Hardening

Grind-hardening machining is not only a complex process coupling mechanical, dynamical and thermal effects, but a process containing distinct changes of microstructure and properties of the workpiece grinded surface layer. Under the defined experimental conditions, an empirical formula was constituted to describe the relation between hardened layer depth and grinding parameter of grind-hardening layer, and the multi-parametric optimization was conducted. A commercial FEM software package was used to simulate the grind-hardening process. The distribution and variation characteristics of the temperature and microstructure in the grinded surface layer of workpiece were obtained and the forming mechanism of the grind-hardened layer is revealed.

鉄鋼材料の表層超強加工による組織と特性変化

鉄鋼材料の表層超強加工による組織と特性変化

Effect of Additional Shear Strain Layer on Microstructure and Tensile Strength of Fine Wire

The mechanical and electrical applications of fine wires (D = 0.1 mm) has become more widely spread. In general, it is well known that fine drawn wires have high tensile strength while maintaining ductility. It has been determined that a hardened layer of around 0.04 mm in depth, referred to as the “additional shear strain layer,” is generated beneath the surface layer of the wire, and this additional shear strain layer affected the tensile strength of the fine wire. As an origin of this phenomenon, it was ascertained that the microstructure of surface layer was finer than that of center layer. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the effect of die angle on the microstructure and the tensile strength of the additional shear strain layer. The tensile test was performed as the surface layer was thinned by electro-polishing, and the crystal orientation and the crystal grain were measured via EBSD. As a result, it was ascertained that die angle affected the tensile strength and crystal grain refinement of the additional shear stray layer.

DIURNAL WIND-INDUCED MIXING IN A SEA SURFACE LAYER ON THE UPPER SIDE OF A STRONG NEARSHORE CURRENT WITH A HIGH-FREQUENCY OCEAN RADAR AND A MICRO-SCALE PROFILER

In order to monitor sea surface current and transportation of heat and material in and around of coral reefs, we conducted field monitoring of wide-ranging (-70km) sea surface current using High-Frequency (HF) ocean radar, and vertical microstructure in the sea surface layer to estimate magnitude of turbulent vertical mixing. We here report time variation of wind-induced mixing in the sea surface layer which was the upper side of a strong near shore current. In our field measurement off Yaeyama Islands on September 15, 2005, the HF ocean radar could captured the presence of strong near-shore current over 50 cms-1, and the vertical microstructure measurement revealed that both elevated water temperature and uniformalization in the sea surface layer corresponding to increase of turbulent energy dissipation (e). Results suggested that energy led to this uniformalization seemed to derive from not the nearshore current but the ocean surface wind.

Microstructure of a Nitrided Steel Previously Decarburized

In this study the effects of a surface-controlled decarburization on the structure of a nitrided steel are analyzed. Samples of a quenched and tempered 42CrMo4 steel were decarburized by heating in air at different depths and submitted to gaseous nitriding. After decarburization and nitriding, the microstructure of surface layers was investigated by optical microscopy (OM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The nitrogen and carbon profiles in the diffusion layers were determined by SEM equipped with a wavelength dispersive spectrometer (EPMA-WDS) and by glow discharge optical spectrometry (GDOS). The effect of nitriding was determined by microhardness measurements. Our results indicate that a previous decarburization only slightly affects the surface hardness, but reduces the conventional nitriding depth. The decarburization also favors the nitrogen take-up and produces increased nitrogen concentrations in the compound layer and in the narrow zone beneath it.

Effect of ultrasonic surface treatment of steel 40Kh13 on the microstructure of nitrided layer formed by high-intensity low-energy implantation with nitrogen ions

X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy were used to study the microstructure and phase composition of surface layers of steel 40Kh13 subjected to irradiation with high-intensity low-energy ion beams, ultrasonic surface modification, and combined treatment including ultrasonic surface modification and ion implantation. It was found that the ultrasonic modification of steel surface leads to changes in the structure of tempered martensite and the formation of grain structure with a grain size of 0.3 μm and nanosized special carbides Cr23C6 in the martensite lamellae. The ion implantation into this steel results in the formation of a nitrided layer consisting of a nitride region, which represents a mixture of several phases (α-, γ′-, ɛ, and ultrafine chromium nitrides), and a zone of internal nitriding (α″ and nitrogen-containing martensite αN). The preliminary ultrasonic modification causes an increase in the nanohardness and in the thickness of the nitrided layer, which is due to the more intense penetration of nitrogen atoms into the surface layer and an increase in the volume fraction of iron nitrides and density of ultrafine chromium nitrides in this layer.