Microstructural Investigations Research Articles

Bone turnover markers in the preoperative assessment of bone quality - A prospective investigation of bone microstructure and advanced glycation endproducts in lumbar fusion patients.

Effective tools to evaluate bone quality preoperatively are scarce and the standard method to determine bone quality requires an invasive biopsy. A non-invasive, and preoperatively available method for bone quality assessment would be of clinical value. The purpose of this study is to investigate the associations of bone formation marker, serum bone alkaline phosphatase (BAP), and bone resorption marker, urine collagen cross-linked N-telopeptide (uNTX) to volumetric bone mineral density (vBMD), fluorescent advanced glycation endproducts (fAGEs) and bone microstructure. A cross-secional analysis using prospective data of patients undergoing lumbar spinal fusion was performed. BAP and uNTX were preoperatively collected. Quantitative computed tomography (QCT) was performed at the lumbar spine (vBMD ≤ 120mg/cm3 osteopenic/osteoporotic). Bone biopsies from the posterior superior iliac spine were obtained and evaluated with multiphoton fluorescence microscopy for fAGEs and microcomputed tomography (µCT) for bone microarchitecture. Correlations between BAP/uNTX to vBMD, fAGEs and µCT parameters were assessed with Spearman's ρ. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis evaluated BAP and uNTX as predictors for osteopenia/osteoporosis. Multivariable linear regression models adjusting for age, sex, BMI, race and diabetes mellitus determined associations between BAP/uNTX and fAGEs. 127 prospectively enrolled patients (50.4% female, 62.5 years, BMI 28.7kg/m2) were analyzed. uNTX (ρ=-0.331,p < 0.005) and BAP (ρ=-0.245,p < 0.025) decreased with cortical fAGEs, and uNTX (ρ=-0.380,p < 0.001) decreased with trabecular fAGEs. BAP and uNTX revealed no significant correlation with vBMD. ROC analysis for BAP and uNTX discriminated osteopenia/osteoporosis with AUC of 0.477 and 0.561, respectively. In the multivariable analysis, uNTX decreased with increasing trabecular fAGEs after adjusting for covariates (β = 0.923;p = 0.031). This study demonstrated an inverse association of bone turnover markers and fAGEs. Both uNTX and BAP could not predict osteopenia/osteoporosis in the spine. uNTX reflects collagen characteristics and might have a complementary role to vBMD, as a non-invasive tool for bone quality assessment in spine surgery.

Application of the EBSD Technique in the Study of Porosity and Permeability in Deformation Bands in Sandstone.

Deformation bands are common constituents of porous clastic fluid reservoirs. Various techniques have been used to study deformation band structure and the associated changes in porosity and permeability. However, the use of electron backscatter diffraction technique is limited. Thus, more information is needed regarding the crystallographic relationships between detrital crystals, which can significantly impact reservoir rock quality. We employ microscopic and microstructural investigation techniques to analyze the influence of cataclastic deformation bands on pore space. Porosity measurements of the Cretaceous Ilhas Group sandstone in NE Brazil, obtained through computerized microtomography, indicate that the undeformed domains exhibit a total porosity of up to 13%. In contrast, this porosity is slightly over 1% in the deformation bands. Scanning electron microscopy analyses revealed the presence of grain fragmentation and dissolution microstructures, along with cement-filling pre-existing pores. The electron backscatter diffraction analyses indicated extensive grain fragmentation and minimal contribution from intracrystalline plasticity as a deformation mechanism. However, the c axes of quartz crystals roughly align parallel to the orientation of the deformation band. In summary, we have confirmed and quantified the internal changes in a deformation band cluster, with grain size reduction and associated compaction as the main mechanism supported by quartz cementation.

Investigation of microstructure, tribological, and corrosion behaviors of TiN@AISI 316 CN processed by rf plasma

In order to enhance the tribological and corrosion properties of AISI 316 substrate, rf plasma carbonitriding was involved to form a carbonitrided layer on AISI 316 base substrate. The deposition of TiN top layer was executed engaging titanium nitride target in argon plasma atmosphere. All the deposition working parameters were reserved to be constant excepting the deposition period that was altered from 4 to 20 min. The effect of TiN top layer thickness on the structure, tribological and electrochemical characteristics of TiN@AISI 316 CN duplex treatment was explored. It was demonstrated, that the duplex coating enhanced the hardness (max: 1740 HV0.025 for TiN (1325nm)@AISI 316 CN sample) and improved the wear and corrosion resistance. Besides, the coefficient of friction is reduced to 0.12–0.2 for TiN@AISI 316 CN duplex treated samples compared with untreated AISI 316 which recorded a value of 0.47.

Investigation of Microstructure and Mechanical Characteristics of Thin-walled Hastelloy C-276 Manufactured Through Pulsed-Arc Additive Manufacturing Technique

Investigation of Microstructure and Mechanical Characteristics of Thin-walled Hastelloy C-276 Manufactured Through Pulsed-Arc Additive Manufacturing Technique

Si3N4 as an Alternative of Silicon for the Anode Application in All‐Solid‐State Li‐Ion Batteries

ABSTRACTThe intermittent nature of renewable energy generation can be tackled by integrating them with electrochemical energy storage, which can also close the gap between supply and demand effectively. It has recently been demonstrated that Si3N4‐based negative electrodes are a promising option for lithium‐ion batteries due to their large theoretical capacity and appropriate working potential with extremely low polarization. In the present work, Si3N4 was utilized as anode material in all‐solid‐state lithium‐ion battery with lithium borohydride as a solid electrolyte and Li foil placed as a counter electrode. The electrochemical properties were investigated using galvanostatic charge/discharge profiling whereas the mechanism of lithiation delithiation was investigated in detail using x‐ray diffraction (XRD). The highest capacity of the composite materials was obtained as 1700 mAhg−1 at 0.05 C current rate in the first cycle, which is reduced to 370 in 5 cycles. However, a stability in the capacity was observed in subsequent cycles and a retention of almost 88% could be achieved in 150 cycles. The interfacial resistance before and after the electrochemical cycling was observed as 326 Ω and 13 kΩ, respectively which is also supported by the microstructural investigations where the cracks are observed because of thermochemical reactions.

Machinability of gas metal arc based 3D printed Al-Mg 5356 alloy using wire-EDM

Wire-Arc Additive Manufactured (WAAM) is relatively new method of metal 3D printing in which the raw material is heated by the gas metal arc and the molten metal pool is deposited layer-by-layer using a computer numerically controlled axis drive system. Since WAAM needs a finishing process for attaining the final dimensions of the components, there is a need to investigate the machinability aspects of WAAM fabricated materials. This work investigates the machinability of Al-Mg 5356 alloy test samples fabricated by WAAM process using wire-electric discharge machining (Wire-EDM). The test samples were subjected to Wire-EDM and the obtained material removal rate (MRR), kerf width (KW) and surface roughness (Ra) were investigated at different Wire-EDM process settings of voltage, current, pulse-on time (Ton), pulse-off time (Toff) and wire speed (Ws). Statistical analysis revealed that current had a significant influence on MRR. Ton had a strong influence on KW and Ra, whereas Toff exhibited a considerable impact on all these responses. Notably, Ws demonstrated a significant impact on Ra. However, voltage was found to have statistically negligible impact on all the machining responses. Microstructural investigations and compositional analysis were conducted providing valuable information on the cut surfaces. The results derived from the present investigation are useful for predicting the optimum process parameter settings for machining of WAAM-based 3D printed Al-Mg alloy in various manufacturing industries.

Effect of intermediate processing treatment on the structure and mechanical properties of Al–4 wt%Cu–3 wt%Mn alloy manufactured by electromagnetic casting followed by high-pressure torsion (HPT)

In this work, a thermally stable model Al–4Cu–3Mn (wt%) alloy has been manufactured by electromagnetic casting (EMC), followed by compression, intermediate heat treatment and high-pressure torsion (HPT). Structural changes of the alloy during subsequent processing stages have been analysed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and the X-ray diffraction (XRD). The results indicate that variations in the intermediate heat treatment temperature of the compressed samples lead to a significant difference in strain hardening and thermal stability after HPT. According to microstructure investigations the hardening of samples processed by HPT resulted from formation of mixture of grains and subgrains with high dislocation density as well as mechanical fragmentation of eutectic Al2Cu particles and precipitation of nanoscale Mn-rich dispersoids which are identified as Al6Mn. The intermediate heat treatment of the EMC rod at 350 ºC for 3 hours and heat treatment of HPT sample at 250 ºC for 5 hours exhibited the best mechanical properties in terms of ultimate tensile strength (UTS), yield strength (YS) and elongation (El), reaching 610 MPa, 560 MPa and 10 % respectively. At the same time intermediate annealing at 450 °C makes the HPT processing ineffective.

Synthesis of binder-free hybrid Ni-Co-Se@NiS2 nanostructures as highly active and durable electrocatalyst for hydrogen evolution reaction in alkaline media and Seawater

The Ni-Co-Se structures have been widely examined as an electrocatalyst for the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). Despite the excellent electrical transportability, they suffer from low profusion of active electrocatalytic sites as well as poor long-term durability. Herein, we demonstrated Nickel-Disulfur doping in Ni-Co-Se as an effective method to simultaneously elevate electrocatalytic activity and stability. In this study, the preparation and optimization of the Ni-Co-Se@NiS2 core–shell structure were discussed using hydrothermal and electrodeposition processes. The electrocatalytic activity of the synthesized samples was investigated in both 1 M KOH solution and Seawater. The results of the electrochemical and microstructural investigations showed that the electrodeposition of NiS2 on Ni-Co-Se under the condition of pulsed potential with a frequency of 0.01 Hz by creating a dual micro-nanometric structure with a high edge area, needed only 73 and 81 mV of overpotentials to achieve a current density of 10 mA.cm2 in KOH and Seawater, respectively, as well as continuous stable operation over 30 h. The excellent kinetics with only 1.7 Ω.cm2 charge transfer resistance reached 300 mV overpotential, the high electrochemically active surface area (ECSA) equal to 1900 cm2, and a turnover frequency (TOF) value of 0.160 s−1 at 140 mV indicate the promising electrocatalytic HER performance of the Ni-Co-Se@NiS2 catalyst. This work introduced a novel strategy for the design and synthesis of high-level selenide-based HER catalysts.

Iron-rich Ca[sbnd]Mg skarns from the SW East European Craton (Lithuania): Microstructural study, mineral reactions and direct age constraints of ore-forming events using LA-ICPMS

The Varena Iron Ore deposit in the SW East European Craton is a significant ore body that occurs within metamorphosed and hydrothermally reworked Paleoproterozoic dolostones. We have performed microstructural investigations supplemented with mineral chemistry and geochronological investigations (LA-ICP-MS) to obtain age constraints on the ore-forming event(s) and improve the understanding of the conditions during mineralization process. Mineral chemistry and textures suggest a drop in pressure after the event of peak metamorphic skarn formation. Influx of oxidized, iron-rich H2O fluids resulted in (1) Mg mobility that caused secondary dolomitization of calcite, (2) dissolution of metamorphic magnetite and formation of a new, inclusion-rich (Mag-1) and inclusion-poor (Mag-2) magnetite, and (3) replacement of the peak skarn assemblages. During these fluid-related processes, accessory phases of monazite, baddeleyite, and zircon were formed. Their UPb dating yield individually robust ages of 1721 ± 9 Ma (monazite, 23 spots), 1703 ± 10 Ma (baddeleyite, 18 spots) and 1706 ± 54 Ma (zircon, 14 spots), respectively. The weighted mean age of 1713 ± 7 Ma (2σ internal) is considered to represent the best age estimate of the iron-ore mineralization in the Varena Iron Ore deposit, and possibly also dates influx of P, REEs etc. into the system. This mineralization event is contemporaneous with ca. 1.73–1.70 Ga metamorphic reworking of the host rocks in the region and may be linked to regional continental-margin type Transscandinavian Igneous Belt (TIB) magmatism in south-central Sweden.

Microstructural Investigation of Porous Plating Copper by Atom Probe Tomography

Microstructural Investigation of Porous Plating Copper by Atom Probe Tomography

Investigation of Microstructure, Mechanical, and Tribological Behavior of Nano‐Y2O3, TiO2, ZrO2‐Dispersed W–Ni–Nb–Mo–Zr Alloys Fabricated by Spark Plasma Sintering

W–Ni–Nb–Mo–Zr alloys with 1.0 weight% (wt%) Y2O3 (alloy A), TiO2 (alloy B), ZrO2 (alloy C) dispersion synthesized by mechanical alloying for 20 h have been subjected to spark plasma sintering at 1150 °C with 65 MPa pressure and 5 min holding time. X‐ray diffraction analysis reveals the occurrence of intermetallics (W2Zr, NiNb, Ni10Zr7, MoNi), which improves the strength of the alloys. Field‐emission scanning electron microscopy analysis shows that the grain size of alloy A is less compared to alloy B and C. Energy‐dispersive spectroscopy reveals the presence of oxides at the matrix interface. Maximum % relative sintered density, ultrahigh hardness, excellent compressive strength, % compressive strain at the maximum compressive load of 99.5%, 20.42 GPa of 2.55 GPa, 9.7%, respectively, have been recorded for alloy A. Maximum texture intensity of 1.5 is recorded for alloy A which supports the superior mechanical properties. The specific wear rate of alloy A is around 2.78 times less compared to alloy C. The crystal structure transformation of ZrO2 from monoclinic to tetragonal after sintering deteriorates the mechanical properties and wear resistance in alloy C. The article also reports the operative wear mechanism in the studied oxide dispersion‐strengthened alloy.

High Temperature Fatigue of Additively Manufactured Inconel 718: A Short Review

Abstract With the increasing interest in adopting additively manufactured (AM) IN718 for high-temperature applications, driven by the design and manufacturing flexibility offered by AM technologies, understanding its fatigue performance is crucial before full-scale adoption. This paper reviews the recent literature on the high-temperature fatigue behavior of AM IN718. The review focuses on two primary stages of fatigue damage: fatigue crack initiation and fatigue crack growth. Notably, most existing studies have concentrated on fatigue crack initiation, and thus, this review emphasizes this aspect. In the fatigue crack initiation stage, discrepancies in low cycle fatigue (LCF) and high cycle fatigue (HCF) life performances are observed in the literature. Some studies have shown that the average room temperature (RT) fatigue life of AM IN718 is superior or comparable to that at high temperatures in the LCF regime. Conversely, in the HCF regime, high-temperature fatigue life is sometimes found to be superior to that at room temperature. However, other studies indicate no clear trend regarding the effect of temperature on HCF life. Although various mechanisms have been proposed to either improve or degrade fatigue performance across the LCF, HCF, and very high cycle fatigue (VHCF) regimes, the underlying reasons for the distinct behaviors in these regimes remain unclear. Competing mechanisms, such as surface oxide formation and thermally driven dislocations glide, can potentially enhance or reduce fatigue life. However, the interaction and control of these mechanisms over the fatigue strength of AM IN718 are not yet fully understood. Systematic studies are required to elucidate their roles in high-temperature fatigue. Microstructural investigations have suggested that controlling the formation and precipitation of deleterious secondary phases is crucial for tailoring the high-temperature fatigue strength of AM IN718. Therefore, it is imperative to design heat treatment protocols informed by a comprehensive understanding of phase formation kinetics to improve the high-temperature fatigue performance of AM IN718 compared to their traditionally manufactured (TM) counterparts. This is particularly important for IN718 parts manufactured using directed energy deposition technology, which currently lacks standardized heat treatment procedures. The review also identifies open research areas and provides recommendations for future work to address these gaps.

Influence of CMT welding parameters on microstructural and properties investigation of dissimilar weld joint for aluminum bronze and carbon steel

Cold Metal Transfer (CMT) welding technology has improved the appearance of weld beads and revolutionized the welding of thicker materials and dissimilar metals with precise metal deposition and reduced heat input. Cold Metal Transfer welding is predominantly used in a variety of industry applications, including aerospace, shipbuilding, automotive and marine industries. In this study, aluminum bronzes and carbon steel were joined by using CMT welding, a variant of the Gas Metal Arc Welding process, with ERCuAl-A2 as the filler metal. Optical microscopy was used to examine the microstructure of the CMT weld joint between aluminum bronze and carbon steel. Results have indicated that dissimilar metals such as aluminum bronze, and carbon steel could be successfully joined by CMT under various processing parameters. The tensile and bending strengths of the dissimilar joint were 490 MPa and 822 MPa, respectively. A variety of intermetallic compounds and solid solutions were generated in the weld zone and fusion zone. The micro-hardness in the carbon steel side of the fusion zones increased sharply, which was 164 HV in the welded condition. The dissimilar joint was stronger than the carbon steel, as the ductile fracture occurred on the carbon steel during the transverse tensile test of the welded specimen. The microstructure interpretation of welded dissimilar joints was analyzed by scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy.

Microstructural BIB-SEM investigation of Upper Cretaceous Jordanian carbonate-rich oil shales bearing type II-S kerogen

AbstractIn this study, we use Broad Ion Beam polishing and Scanning Electron Microscopy (BIB-SEM) to characterize the microstructure of selected core samples of immature Upper Cretaceous carbonate-rich oil shales from Jordan and to link the observations to porosity and compositional and geochemical data. The aim of this study is to understand the distribution of pore space, primary organic matter, and organic sulfur on a sub-micron scale, particularly in carbonate- and silicate-dominated layers. The thermal maturity of these marine carbonate mudstone samples of pelagic origin was found to be influenced by the elevated sulfur contents in these Type II-S kerogen source rocks. This was confirmed through both organic geochemistry and BIB-SEM observations, which revealed high sulfur content. Porosity in the carbonate mudstone exists within foraminifera, and aggregates of microfossil fragments. Initially, these voids provided significant inter- and intra-particle porosity which were later filled by organic matter during diagenesis. This ‘mobile’ organic matter is interpreted as microscopic bitumen, which exists as a solid or highly viscous fluid at surface conditions. It is likely a residue of low-temperature (“early”) bitumen generation. By examining the samples before and after dichloromethane (DCM) extraction and subsequent BIB-SEM analyses, we observed that the specimens contained a significant amount of soluble organic matter (SOM), mostly present in the micropores associated with calcite. The microscopic solid bitumen is observed to remain stable even under various conditions, such as in vacuum oven conditions of 105 °C (24 h), or exposure to ultra-high vacuum, broad ion beam (heat &gt; 70 °C) and an electron beam of 15 keV. This suggests that the solid bitumen acts as a solid at elevated temperatures and confining pressures (85 °C and 250 MPa), and its presence can lead to the buildup of significant fluid overpressures. Our observations indicate that the pores associated with calcite provide high storage capacity in the shales during the early stages of hydrocarbon generation. In contrast, it suggests that siliciclastic-rich samples are more prone to hydrofracturing as the (early) generated hydrocarbons cannot be expelled easily. These findings highlight the complex distribution and behavior of pore space, organic matter, and sulfur in shales, shedding light on their potential for hydrocarbon generation and storage. Graphical abstract

Characterization of NbTiCrFeMoX high entropy coating processed by laser cladding in pipeline: investigation of microstructural, tensile, creep, wear, and corrosion properties

Characterization of NbTiCrFeMoX high entropy coating processed by laser cladding in pipeline: investigation of microstructural, tensile, creep, wear, and corrosion properties

Preparation of CrCoFeNiMn High-Entropy Alloy Coatings Using Gas Atomization and Laser Cladding: An Investigation of Microstructure, Mechanical Properties, and Wear Resistance

Preparation of CrCoFeNiMn High-Entropy Alloy Coatings Using Gas Atomization and Laser Cladding: An Investigation of Microstructure, Mechanical Properties, and Wear Resistance

Effect of V Content on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of High‐Pressure Torsion Nanostructured CoCrFeMnNiVx High‐Entropy Alloys

The article presents investigations of microstructure and low‐temperature mechanical properties of nanostructured alloys CoCrFeMnNiVx (x = 0.15–0.75), processed by high‐pressure torsion (HPT) at temperatures of 300 and 77 K. While at x ≥ 0.5 the values of microhardness (Hv) and compression yield stress (σ0.2) in samples after HPT at 77 K are larger than those in samples after HPT at 300 K, for x ≤ 0.2 surprisingly the opposite effect is observed. As in case of the undeformed CoCrFeMnNiVx alloys, the behavior for vanadium concentrations x ≥ 0.5 can be related to the formation of tetragonal σ‐phase in addition to face‐centered cubic matrix, while the anomalous behavior for x ≤ 0.2 arises from the formation of HPT‐induced hexagonal martensitic phase. In the low‐temperature ranges, i.e., 20–300 K in case of HPT nanostructured CoCrFeMnNiV0.2, and 150–300 K in case of HPT nanostructured CoCrFeMnNiV0.5, dependences of σ0.2(T) show characteristics of thermally activated dislocation movement. For the first time in high‐entropy alloys, anomalous dependences of σ0.2(T) at temperatures 4.2–20 K for CoCrFeMnNiV0.2, and at 80–150 K for CoCrFeMnNiV0.5 are found, which indicate at the occurrence of nonthermal inertial dislocation movement.

Microstructural and mechanical properties of Al-Al2O3 micro and nanocomposite fabricated by stir casting

ABSTRACT The current study examines the relationship between the microstructure and tribological characteristics of Al-Si alloy composites reinforced by secondary phase nano SiC particulates synthesis via the stir casting process. The results of wear testing of stir-cast SiC metal matrix composites including up to 12 weight percent fine (75–100 µm) and coarse (125–150 µm) size particles were obtained from cast aluminium alloy. It was discovered via microstructural investigation that the aluminium alloy and SiC particles have good interface bonding. However, at greater amounts (12 wt.%) of fine size reinforcement, clustering of reinforced particles is observed. In addition, results state that finer size particles agglomerate more in the matrix than coarser size particles at greater reinforcement levels. In addition, increasing the amount of SiC particles in the matrix enhanced the hardness of the base alloy. However, when the size of the SiC particles was reduced, the hardness of the composite increased dramatically. Better wear resistance was observed for higher SiC reinforcement levels, while higher forces were also associated with a corresponding increase in wear rate. A combined mode of adhesive and abrasive wear mechanisms is responsible for composite wear, according to a scanning electron microscopy (SEM) investigation of worn surfaces.

In-situ WAXS and SAXS microstructural investigation of Poly(vinylidene fluoride)- Fe3O4 coaxial-electrospun nanocomposites under thermal and mechanical loading: Nanoparticles size effects on fibers molecular orientation, mechanical properties and crystalline polymorphs

In this study, 15 % w/w polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)–Fe3O4 nanoparticle (NP) nanocomposite scaffolds were prepared using coaxial electrospinning with a high-speed conductive rotating collector to obtain aligned fibers. The effects of varying the Fe3O4 NP size (6, 9, and 14 nm in diameter) on the fiber morphology, mechanical response, and piezoelectric phase content were investigated. In situ X-ray diffraction measurements during heating-cooling and tensile tests were carried out using synchrotron radiation to study the charge in the β-phase content and polymer chain orientation under different conditions. At zero strain, the presence of smaller NPs seems to impede the β-phase crystallization in PVDF. However, heating-cooling cycles revealed that the NPs acted as nucleation agents, promoting a higher β-phase content after cooling compared to pure PVDF. The mechanical response showed that nanocomposites with smaller NPs exhibited higher stiffness. While the initial degree of polymer chain orientation was higher in the nanocomposites, the presence of NPs hindered the α-to-β phase transformation and chain alignment under tensile deformation compared to pure PVDF. This study highlights the complex interplay among NP size, β-phase formation, mechanical properties, and chain orientation in PVDF-Fe3O4 nanocomposites, providing insights into tailoring their piezoelectric performance for various applications.

Spark Plasma Sintering of Pure Titanium: Microstructure and Mechanical Characteristics.

The versatility of titanium (Ti) allows it to be employed in various industries, from aerospace engineering to medical technology, highlighting its significance in modern manufacturing and engineering processes. Spark plasma sintering (SPS) is currently being explored to enhance its properties further and broaden its application range. The current study focuses on exploring and optimizing the effect of SPS temperature (800, 900, 1000, 1100, 1200, and 1400 °C) on pure Ti sintered at 60 MPa in a controlled argon environment with a dwell time of 5 min. All the prepared samples were highly dense with a relative density above 99%, but exhibited significant variations in grain size (10 to 57 µm), tensile yield strength (488 to 700 MPa), ultimate tensile strength (597 to 792 MPa), and ductility (4 to 7%). A microstructural investigation was performed using XRD, SEM, and EDS to predict the influence of sintering temperature on the formation of different phases. The XRD patterns of all sintered samples showed the presence of single-phase α-Ti with hexagonally close-packed Ti. This work is a step forward in optimizing SPS-processed Ti's physical and mechanical properties for enhanced structural and biomedical applications.