Microscale Particle Image Velocimetry Research Articles

Phase-locked µPIV analysis of flow dynamics in a simulated root canal with different laser-activated irrigations.

To measure the dynamic characteristics of the flow field in a complex root canal model activated by two laser-activated irrigation (LAI) modalities at different activation energy outputs: photon-induced photoacoustic streaming (PIPS) and microshort pulse (MSP). A phase-locked micro-scale Particle Image Velocimetry (µPIV) system was employed to characterise the temporal variations of LAI-induced velocity fields in the root canal following a single laser pulse. The wall shear stress (WSS) in the lateral root canal was subsequently estimated from the phase-averaged velocity fields. Both PIPS and MSP were able to generate the 'breath mode' of the irrigant current under all tested conditions. The transient irrigation flush in the root canal peaked at speeds close to 6 m/s. However, this intense flushing effect persisted for only about 2000 µs (or 3% of a single laser-pulse activation cycle). For MSP, the maximum WSS magnitude was approximately 3.08 Pa at an activation energy of E = 20 mJ/pulse, rising to 9.01 Pa at E = 50 mJ/pulse. In comparison, PIPS elevated the WSS to 10.63 Pa at E = 20 mJ/pulse. Elevating the activation energy can boost the peak flushing velocity and the maximum WSS, thereby enhancing irrigation efficiency. Given the same activation energy, PIPS outperforms MSP. Additionally, increasing the activation frequency may be an effective strategy to improve irrigation performance further.

Pore-Scale Flow Fields of the Viscosity-Lost Partially Hydrolyzed Polyacrylamide Solution Caused by Sulfide Ion

The rheology of a partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (HPAM) solution plays an important role in its oil recovery during polymer flooding. However, multiple factors in brine, such as sulfide ions, cause a dramatic loss in the viscosity and oil recovery. To better understand the sulfide-induced viscosity loss and the consequent flow mechanisms in pore networks, the morphology of polymer solutions with and without sulfide ion was observed by scanning electron microscopy; and the variations of the pore scale flow fields were demonstrated by a microscopic visualization seepage experiment combined with Micro-PIV (Microscale Particle Image Velocimetry). The results showed that, with the presence of sulfide ion, the microstructure of the polymer changed from a uniform three-dimensional network structure to loose and uneven floccules, which resulted in viscosity loss (over 70% with 5-mg/L sulfide ion). Moreover, higher concentrations of sulfide ions (5 mg/L and 10 mg/L) resulted in earlier shear thinning characteristics than those with lower sulfide concentrations. Due to viscosity loss, the average flow velocity in the main stream of the microscopic seepage experiment increased more significantly than that without sulfide. However, the viscosity loss alone cannot independently explain the severe viscous fingering during the subsequent post-water flooding, which was about five times greater than that of the primary water flooding in terms of the velocity ratio between the mainstream and margin. A further pore-scale flow field analysis exhibited an eccentric and a bimodal velocity distribution in the throat along the radial and axial directions, respectively. The former distribution indicated that the adsorbed polymer on the pore wall was broken through by hydraulic shear due to the collapsed structure caused by sulfide ion. The latter suggested that another sulfide-induced impact was an earlier-occurring non-Newtonian characteristic with a low shear rate. Therefore, instead of viscosity loss, elastic loss is the dominant mechanism affecting the characteristics of the aggregate flow field under the action of sulfide. Microscopic flooding combined with Micro-PIV is a feasible and essential method to reveal pore scale flow mechanisms.

Characteristics of the Irrigant Flow in a Simulated Lateral Canal Under Two Typical Laser-Activated Irrigation Regimens.

Photon-induced photoacoustic streaming (PIPS) and shockwave-enhanced emission photoacoustic streaming (SWEEPS) are two promising laser-activated irrigation (LAI) methods for root canal irrigation. Their performance in driving irrigant flush in a complex root canal system will be evaluated by microscale particle image velocimetry (μPIV) measurement and will be compared with that of ultrasonic-activated irrigation (UAI). A μPIV system with 7 μm fluorescent tracer particles was adopted to measure two-dimensional (2D) velocity fields around the junction region, with a size of 1.8 mm × 1.5 mm, between one main canal and one lateral canal in an endodontic training block, which was driven by SWEEPS (Er:YAG laser) operating at 15 Hz and 20 mJ. The flow field driven by PIPS (Er:YAG laser) at the same frequency and energy, as well as by UAI (with non-cutting insert) operating at 40% unit power, was also measured for a direct comparison. It was found that both SWEEPS and PIPS can activate a so-called "breath mode" during the irrigation. Namely, the induced irrigant flush presented a back-and-forth oscillation along both the main canal and the lateral one. The maximum flow speed in the lateral canal was observed to be up to 10 m/s in the SWEEPS modality, while reduced to around 7 m/s in the PIPS modality. The penetration length in the lateral canal in both modalities was estimated to be larger than 1 mm. In comparison, the flow field induced by UAI was characterized as irregular vortical structures, the maximum flow speed in the lateral canal was 0.15 m/s and significantly lower than LAI (P < 0.01), and the penetration length was less than 300 μm and lower than LAI (P < 0.05). Compared to UAI, PIPS, and SWEEPS are more capable of delivering the irrigant deeper into the lateral canal. Furthermore, the back-and-forth flush in the breath mode is ideal for removing debris during irrigation. Lasers Surg. Med. © 2020 Wiley Periodicals LLC.

Probing vortex-shedding at high frequencies in flows past confined microfluidic cylinders using high-speed microscale particle image velocimetry

Vortex-shedding from micropins has the potential to significantly enhance and intensify scalar transport in microchannels, for example by improving species mixing. However, the onset of vortex-shedding and the mixing efficiency are highly sensitive to the confinement imposed by the microchannel walls. In this work, the time dependent flow past a cylindrical pin in microchannels with different levels of confinement was studied experimentally. The onset of vortex-shedding in such flows is associated with high, kilohertz range frequencies that are difficult to resolve using conventional laser-based microscale particle image velocimetry (μPIV) techniques. Hence, in this study, a high-speed μPIV technique was implemented in order to obtain time-resolved measurements of the velocity fields downstream of the micropin to estimate the corresponding vortex-shedding frequencies and quantify the mixing in the pin wake. The vertical confinement (pin length to diameter ratio) was found to delay the onset of vortex-shedding. When vortex-shedding was present, the shedding frequency and the corresponding Strouhal numbers were found to be greater in channels with higher lateral confinement for the same Reynolds number. Finite-time Lyapunov exponent analysis was performed on the acquired velocity fields to estimate the mixing performance. The results clearly illustrated the significant enhancement in both the mixing in the wake and the mass flux across the centerline of the wake induced by vortex-shedding.

Temperature Gradients Drive Bulk Flow Within Microchannel Lined by Fluid-Fluid Interfaces.

Surface tension gradients induce Marangoni flow, which may be exploited for fluid transport. At the micrometer scale, these surface-driven flows can be quite significant. By introducing fluid-fluid interfaces along the walls of microfluidic channels, bulk fluid flows driven by temperature gradients are observed. The temperature dependence of the fluid-fluid interfacial tension appears responsible for these flows. In this report, the design concept for a biocompatible microchannel capable of being powered by solar irradiation is provided. Using microscale particle image velocimetry, a bulk flow generated by apparent surface tension gradients along the walls is observed. The direction of flow relative to the imposed temperature gradient agrees with the expected surface tension gradient. The phenomenon's ability to replace bulky peripherals, like traditional syringe pumps, on a diagnostic microfluidic device that captures and detects leukocyte subpopulations within blood is demonstrated. Such microfluidic devices may be implemented for clinical assays at the point of care without the use of electricity.

Hydrodynamics of Two Interacting Liquid Droplets of Aqueous Solution inside a Microchannel.

We experimentally investigated the effect of a neighboring liquid droplet on fluid convection inside a liquid droplet of aqueous solution present inside a microchannel using the microscale particle image velocimetry technique. There is no physical contact between the two droplets, and the solute concentrations of the two droplets are set at different values. Vapor concentration near the interface of the two droplets is different due to the difference in solute concentration. Water vapor evaporates from the low-concentration droplet having higher vapor pressure and condenses on the high-concentration droplet having lower vapor pressure. Evaporation and condensation induce Rayleigh convection inside the two droplets. Flow pattern shows circulating loops inside both liquid droplets. The circulations at the interacting adjacent interface of the two droplets are opposite to each other. The strength of flow inside the liquid droplets decreases with time due to decrease in the difference of solute concentration between the two droplets. The flow strength inside the two interacting droplets is also a function of separation distance between the droplets. The flow strength inside the droplets decreases with increase in separation distance.

A spherical Leidenfrost droplet with translation and rotation

This study presents a theoretical model for a spherical Leidenfrost droplet with rotational and translational motion. Scaling analysis is carried out to validate the lubrication approximation, from which the velocity, the pressure field, and the temperature profile in the vapor film underneath the mobile Leidenfrost droplet are solved. The velocity field in the rotating Leidenfrost droplet is measured by microscale particle image velocimetry, and used as the boundary condition. The pressure and the rotational speed is then linked by the balance of shear force at the liquid-vapor interface. For a given wall temperature and an initial radius of the Leidenfrost droplet, our model is able to determine the minimal thickness of vapor film, the rotational speed, the translational speed, the heat transfer rate, and the variation of droplet radius with time by numerical iteration. During the evaporation process, the Leidenfrost droplet spins and moves faster and faster, and droplet shrinkage also accelerates. In addition, there exists a critical radius below which the levitation of droplet reduces rapidly. As the wall temperature increases, this critical radius decreases and the speed-up of the droplet shrinkage becomes more apparent. The results also show that heat transfer of a Leidenfrost droplet is dominated by thermal conduction through the vapor film, but contribution of thermal radiation from the hot surface to the entire droplet grows as the wall temperature heightens. Due to the lower thermal conductivity of oil vapor, a mineral oil droplet leads to a heat transfer rate smaller than that of a water droplet. Comparing to the results of a stationary droplet, incorporating the droplet motion into the model is able to predict the characteristics of the Leidenfrost droplet more accurately.

Influence of low-frequency vibrations on blood flow improvement in human's limbs.

The fundamental cause of diabetic limbs' problem is insufficient blood supply. The aim of the current work was to experimentally and numerically investigate the blood flow velocity and pressure changes in the channel during vibrational excitation. The micro-scale Particle Image Velocimetry (μPIV) technique as well as corresponding numerical channel model in COMSOL Multiphysics software were used to investigate the influence of external vibrations. Momentum upstream flow were noted on the fluid that was influenced by vibrations. Furthermore, momentum flow velocity increased by more than 3 times in both experimentally and theoretically. These results show that suggested novel low-frequency vibrational excitation method should be investigated in clinical studies in case of improvement of blood circulation in human limbs.

Powder dispersion mechanisms within a dry powder inhaler using microscale particle image velocimetry

The goal of this work was to evaluate the ability of Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) to visually assess dry powder dispersion within an inhaler. Herein, the study reports particle movement characterization of entrained low-micron particles within an inhaler to further scheme of potential mechanisms. Carrier based DPI formulations were prepared and placed in a transparent model Rotahaler® chamber for the aerosolization experiments. Then using the PIV, a high-speed camera, the dried powder dispersion was directly observed and analyzed for all, neat, binary and ternary systems. Powder dispersion mechanisms proposed include drag force, impact with obstacle and particle-particle collision; these different mechanisms depended on the powder flow properties. A revised ratio of aerodynamic response time (τA) to the mean time between collisions (τC) was found to be 6.8 indicating that particle collisions were of strong influence to particle dispersion. With image analysis techniques, visualization of particle flow pattern and collision regions was possible; suggesting that the various mechanisms proposed did govern the powder dispersion.

Experimental Study of Micro‐Scale Taylor Vortices Within a Co‐Axial Mixed‐Flow Blood Pump

Taylor vortices in a miniature mixed-flow rotodynamic blood pump were investigated using micro-scale particle image velocimetry (μ-PIV) and a tracer particle visualization technique. The pump featured a cylindrical rotor (14.9 mm diameter) within a cylindrical bore, having a radial clearance of 500 μm and operated at rotational speeds varying from 1000 to 12 000 rpm. Corresponding Taylor numbers were 700-101 800, respectively. The critical Taylor number was observed to be highly dependent on the ratio of axial to circumferential velocity, increasing from 1200 to 18 000 corresponding to Rossby numbers from 0 to 0.175. This demonstrated a dramatic stabilizing effect of the axial flow. The size of Taylor vortices was also found to be inversely related to Rossby number. It is concluded that Taylor vortices can enhance the mixing in the annular gap and decrease the dwell time of blood cells in the high-shear-rate region, which has the potential to decrease hemolysis and platelet activation within the blood pump.

Time-resolved mixing and flow-field measurements during droplet formation in a flow-focusing junction

Highly monodispersed emulsions can be produced in microfluidic flow-focusing junctions (Anna et al 2003 Appl. Phys. Lett. 82 364–6, Baroud et al 2010 Lab Chip 10 2032–45). This is the reason why many industrial processes in the medical industry among others are based on droplet manipulation and involve at some point a step of dripping within a junction. However, only a few studies have focused on the flow field inside and outside the droplet, even though it is a necessary step for understanding the physical mechanism involved and for modeling the droplet formation process. Water-in-oil emulsions are produced in flow-focusing junctions of square cross sections. The fluids constituting the emulsion are (i) a 5.0 mPa·s silicon oil for the oil phase and (ii) distilled water containing 2.0 wt% of sodium dodecyl sulfate surfactant for the aqueous phase. Time-resolved shadow particle images are acquired using a microscale particle image velocimetry (µPIV) system and flow fields are calculated using an adaptive PIV algorithm in combination with dynamic masking. Inside the microchannel and in the permanent regime, the droplet has an internal circulation that has been well established by Sarrazin et al (AICHE J. 52 4061–70). But during the formation of a droplet in a flow-focusing junction, the flow field is not so well known, and the circulation in the finger flows forward along the sides and returns along the center. The mechanism can be described in terms of four distinct steps: droplet growth, necking, rupture, and recoil. The liquid expelled from the neck just before rupture is also well observed. The flow field and mixing are measured in detail during a complete cycle of formation of a main droplet and satellite droplets using high-speed imaging. This allows us to develop a better understanding of the different forces that are present and of the physical mechanism of droplet formation.

Hydrodynamics of a self-actuated bacterial carpet using microscale particle image velocimetry.

Microorganisms can effectively generate propulsive force at the microscale where viscous forces overwhelmingly dominate inertia forces; bacteria achieve this task through flagellar motion. When swarming bacteria, cultured on agar plates, are blotted onto the surface of a microfabricated structure, a monolayer of bacteria forms what is termed a "bacterial carpet," which generates strong flows due to the combined motion of their freely rotating flagella. Furthermore, when the bacterial carpet coated microstructure is released into a low Reynolds number fluidic environment, the propulsive force of the bacterial carpet is able to give the microstructure motility. In our previous investigations, we demonstrated motion control of these bacteria powered microbiorobots (MBRs). Without any external stimuli, MBRs display natural rotational and translational movements on their own; this MBR self-actuation is due to the coordination of flagella. Here, we investigate the flow fields generated by bacterial carpets, and compare this flow to the flow fields observed in the bulk fluid at a series of locations above the bacterial carpet. Using microscale particle image velocimetry, we characterize the flow fields generated from the bacterial carpets of MBRs in an effort to understand their propulsive flow, as well as the resulting pattern of flagella driven self-actuated motion. Comparing the velocities between the bacterial carpets on fixed and untethered MBRs, it was found that flow velocities near the surface of the microstructure were strongest, and at distances far above, the surface flow velocities were much smaller.

Experimental study of the application of micro-PIV on the flow characteristics detection of micro-gap rotational flow field

For a micro-gap rotational flow field with a large horizontal extent, tiny gap and fast flow velocity, the two-dimensional images shot by the micro-scale Particle ImageVelocimetry(Micro-PIV) technique are not sufficient for the study of local or whole flow characteristics. In this paper, by establishing a test bench of a rotational flow field with the functions of driving, positioning, adjustment and sensing, all the local states of the micro-gap rotational flow field can be obtained by horizontally moving the rotating axis to observe point by point. While measuring some local flow fields, two-dimensional pictures are taken by adjusting the focusing height of the objective lens, and then superposed and interpolated according to their shooting order to obtain a quasi-three-dimensional distribution image of the local flow fields, thus obtaining the flow condition of the vertical section of the flow field. The position of the focusing plane and mutual distance are adjusted to realize the measurement of wall shear force in the flow field, providing a feasible reference method for detecting the rheological property of the gap flow field and the effect of surface drag reduction.

A new approach to micro-scale particle image velocimetry (µPIV) for quantifying flows around free-swimming zooplankton

A new approach to micro-scale particle image velocimetry (µPIV) for quantifying flows around free-swimming zooplankton

Flow Measurements in a Blood-Perfused Collagen Vessel Using X-Ray Micro-Particle Image Velocimetry

Blood-perfused tissue models are joining the emerging field of tumor engineering because they provide new avenues for modulation of the tumor microenvironment and preclinical evaluation of the therapeutic potential of new treatments. The characterization of fluid flow parameters in such in-vitro perfused tissue models is a critical step towards better understanding and manipulating the tumor microenvironment. However, traditional optical flow measurement methods are inapplicable because of the opacity of blood and the thickness of the tissue sample. In order to overcome the limitations of optical method we demonstrate the feasibility of using phase-contrast x-ray imaging to perform microscale particle image velocimetry (PIV) measurements of flow in blood perfused hydrated tissue-representative microvessels. However, phase contrast x-ray images significantly depart from the traditional PIV image paradigm, as they have high intensity background, very low signal-to-noise ratio, and volume integration effects. Hence, in order to achieve accurate measurements special attention must be paid to the image processing and PIV cross-correlation methodologies. Therefore we develop and demonstrate a methodology that incorporates image preprocessing as well as advanced PIV cross-correlation methods to result in measured velocities within experimental uncertainty.

Experimental Investigation of the Flow Field of Gas-Liquid Slug

The oscillating motion occurring in an oscillating heat pipe (OHP) can enhance heat transfer. The fluid flow of liquid plugs trapped between the vapor bubbles play a key role in an OHP. Understanding the flow field of liquid plug moving in a capillary tube will provide an insight into the oscillating motion occurring in an OHP. An experimental setup of a liquid plug moving in a capillary tube was established to determine the flow field of a liquid plug using the microscale particle image velocimetry (µPIV) system. The motion of liquid plug was controlled by a computer-controlled system, which can produce a velocity ranging from 0.5 mm/s to 9 mm/s. The diameter of the capillary tube investigated herein is 1mm with a liquid plug length from 1.0 mm to 5.0 mm. The µPIV data clearly indicates the complex nature of liquid plug flow in a capillary tube trapped between two gas bubbles. Experimental results show that there exist circulations near the contact line. The circulation strength in a liquid plug depends on the liquid plug length and velocity of the liquid plug.

In Situ Spatiotemporal Mapping of Flow Fields around Seeded Stem Cells at the Subcellular Length Scale

A major hurdle to understanding and exploiting interactions between the stem cell and its environment is the lack of a tool for precise delivery of mechanical cues concomitant to observing sub-cellular adaptation of structure. These studies demonstrate the use of microscale particle image velocimetry (μ-PIV) for in situ spatiotemporal mapping of flow fields around mesenchymal stem cells, i.e. murine embryonic multipotent cell line C3H10T1/2, at the subcellular length scale, providing a tool for real time observation and analysis of stem cell adaptation to the prevailing mechanical milieu. In the absence of cells, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) predicts flow regimes within 12% of μ-PIV measures, achieving the technical specifications of the chamber and the flow rates necessary to deliver target shear stresses at a particular height from the base of the flow chamber. However, our μ-PIV studies show that the presence of cells per se as well as the density at which cells are seeded significantly influences local flow fields. Furthermore, for any given cell or cell seeding density, flow regimes vary significantly along the vertical profile of the cell. Hence, the mechanical milieu of the stem cell exposed to shape changing shear stresses, induced by fluid drag, varies with respect to proximity of surrounding cells as well as with respect to apical height. The current study addresses a previously unmet need to predict and observe both flow regimes as well as mechanoadaptation of cells in flow chambers designed to deliver precisely controlled mechanical signals to live cells. An understanding of interactions and adaptation in response to forces at the interface between the surface of the cell and its immediate local environment may be key for de novo engineering of functional tissues from stem cell templates as well as for unraveling the mechanisms underlying multiscale development, growth and adaptation of organisms.

Experimental study of flow fields in an airway closure model

The liquid lining in small human airways can become unstable and form liquid plugs that close off the airways. Bench-top experiments have been performed in a glass capillary tube as a model airway to study the airway instability and the flow-induced stresses on the airway walls. A microscale particle image velocimetry system is used to visualize quantitatively the flow fields during the dynamic process of airway closure. An annular film is formed by injecting low-viscosity Si-oil into the glycerol-filled capillary tube. The viscosity ratio between these two fluids is similar to that between water and air. The thickness of the film varies with the infusion rate of the core fluid, which is controlled by a syringe pump. After a uniform film is formed, the syringe pump is shut off so that the core flow speed is close to zero during closure. Instantaneous velocity fields in the annular film at various stages of airway closure are computed from the images and analysed. The wall shear stress at the instant when a liquid plug forms is found to be approximately one order of magnitude higher than the exponential growth period before closure. Within the short time span of the closure process, there are large wall shear stress fluctuations. Furthermore, dramatic velocity changes in the film flow during closure indicate a steep normal stress gradient on the airway wall. The experimental results show that the wall shear stress during closure can be high enough to injure airway epithelial cells. An airway that experiences closure and reopening cyclically during breathing could be injured from fluid forces during both phases of the cycle (i.e. inspiration and expiration).

μ-PIV measurements of the ensemble flow fields surrounding a migrating semi-infinite bubble

Microscale particle image velocimetry (μ-PIV) measurements of ensemble flow fields surrounding a steadily-migrating semi-infinite bubble through the novel adaptation of a computer controlled linear motor flow control system. The system was programmed to generate a square wave velocity input in order to produce accurate constant bubble propagation repeatedly and effectively through a fused glass capillary tube. We present a novel technique for re-positioning of the coordinate axis to the bubble tip frame of reference in each instantaneous field through the analysis of the sudden change of standard deviation of centerline velocity profiles across the bubble interface. Ensemble averages were then computed in this bubble tip frame of reference. Combined fluid systems of water/air, glycerol/air, and glycerol/Si-oil were used to investigate flows comparable to computational simulations described in Smith and Gaver (2008) and to past experimental observations of interfacial shape. Fluorescent particle images were also analyzed to measure the residual film thickness trailing behind the bubble. The flow fields and film thickness agree very well with the computational simulations as well as existing experimental and analytical results. Particle accumulation and migration associated with the flow patterns near the bubble tip after long experimental durations are discussed as potential sources of error in the experimental method.

Micro-Particle Image Velocimetry (µPIV): Recent developments, applications, and guidelines

In this review we discuss the state of the art of the optical whole-field velocity measurement technique micro-scale Particle Image Velocimetry (microPIV). microPIV is a useful tool for fundamental research of microfluidics as well as for the detailed characterization and optimization of microfluidic applications in life science, lab-on-a-chip, biomedical research, micro chemical engineering, analytical chemistry and other related fields of research. An in depth description of the microPIV method is presented and compared to other flow visualization and measurement methods. An overview of the most relevant applications is given on the topics of near-wall flow, electrokinetic flow, biological flow, mixing, two-phase flow, turbulence transition and complex fluid dynamic problems. Current trends and applications are critically reviewed. Guidelines for the implementation and application are also discussed.