Micronutrient Deficiencies In Children Research Articles

Anemia and Iron and Vitamin B12 Deficiencies in Children Under 5 in Mexico: Results from the National Health and Nutrition Survey (ENSANUT)

Abstract Objectives To examine the burden of anemia, iron deficiency, and vitamin B12 deficiency in children under 5 in Mexico. Methods Data from the recently completed National Health and Nutrition Survey (ENSANUT 2018) were analyzed to examine the burden of anemia and micronutrient deficiencies in children under 5 (1 to <5 years). Hemoglobin (Hb) concentrations werequantified in capillary blood samples (n = 3144) via HemoCue.Venous blood samples (n = 1019) were collected, centrifuged, processed, and stored <−80°C until analysis of micronutrient biomarkers. Serum ferritin (SF), C-reactive protein (CRP), and vitamin B12 concentrations were measured via immunoassays. Hemoglobin was adjusted for altitude; anemia was defined as hemoglobin <11.0 g/dL. Iron deficiency was defined as serum ferritin <12.0 µg/L and iron insufficiency was defined as serum ferritin <20.0 µg/L; inflammation was defined as CRP concentrations > 5.0 mg/L (and CRP > 1.0 mg/L). Iron deficiency anemia was defined as hemoglobin <11.0 g/dL and serum ferritin <12.0 μg/L. Vitamin B12 deficiency and vitamin B12 insufficiency were defined as <148.0 and <221.0 pmol/L, respectively. Survey frequency procedures were used to examine the prevalence of anemia and micronutrient deficiencies; survey linear and logistic regression were used to examine associations of micronutrient biomarkers with hemoglobin concentrations and odds of anemia. Results A total of 22.9% of children were anemic in this population. In the biomarker sub-sample, 10.0% of children were iron deficient (SF < 12.0 µg/L), and 29.9% had serum ferritin concentrations <20.0 µg/L. A total of 9.5% of children had CRP concentrations >5.0 mg/L, and 34.7% had CRP > 1.0 mg/L. The prevalence of vitamin B12 deficiency (vitamin B12 < 148.0 pmol/L) was 5.4% and 21.5% of children had vitamin B12 insufficiency (vitamin B12 < 221.0 pmol/L). Conclusions Findings suggest that the burden of anemia and iron and vitamin B12 insufficiency is high in young children in Mexico. Funding Sources ENSANUT was funded by The Ministry of Health of Mexico.

The Role of Gluten-Free Diet in Rebalancing Micronutrient Deficiencies in Children With Celiac Disease

Introduction: Celiac disease (CD) is one of the most common reasons for malnutrition. This study aimed to determine the status of the micronutrients, including vitamins and minerals in children with CD. Methods: The participants of this study included children <18 years old newly diagnosed with CD from January 2016 to December 2017 in the Clinic of Gastrointestinal and Digestive Diseases affiliated with Shiraz University of Medical Sciences. The diagnosis of CD was based on serological and pathologic findings. Finally, the data was analyzed using SPSS 22. Results: In the present study, 78 children with CD were evaluated, including 30 (38.5%) males and 48 (61.5%) females. The levels of hemoglobin and iron significantly improved after 6 months of treatment (P=0.001). In the present study, the level of calcium was below the normal range in 5 (6.4%) patients at diagnosis. However, its level was within a normal range in all patients 6 months after the treatment. Based on the results, the level of phosphorus was low in 24 (30.7%) and 5 (6.4%) patients before and after the treatment, respectively (P=0.001). Further, the vitamin D level was below a normal range in 66 (84.6%) and 15 (19.2%) patients at diagnosis and 6 months after the treatment, respectively (P=0.001). On the other hand, the mean level of folic acid increased from 16.5 at diagnosis to 22.39 after 6 months of treatment (P=0.001). Finally, the mean level of zinc also increased from 73.3 at diagnosis to 81.6 after 6 months of treatment (P=0.001). Conclusion: In general, the levels of iron, folate, vitamin D, and zinc reduced in patients with CD. In most patients, these deficiencies improved by receiving a gluten-free diet (GFD). Monitoring patients with CD is recommended for the diagnosis of micronutrient deficiencies.

Improving long-term stability of retinol in dried blood spots and quantification of its levels via a novel LC-MS/MS method.

Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) is a major micronutrient deficiency in children. Although plasma and serum retinol levels are proposed as the key indicators of VAD, collecting and transporting plasma and serum are difficult and inconvenient in field studies. Dried blood spot (DBS) retinol has been used as an alternative to plasma retinol in several epidemiological and clinical studies. A limitation of methods that use DBS retinol is the instability and apparent loss of retinol in DBSs. Therefore, an accurate, reliable method for stabilizing retinol in DBSs and quantifying and comparing DBS retinol concentrations with equivalent plasma retinol levels is required. In this study, antioxidants on paper combined with vacuum treatment were found to greatly increase the stability of DBS retinol during 120min of air drying and 30days of room-temperature storage. A surrogate matrix of whole blood prepared using a mixture of human erythrocytes and 2% BSA in PBS was firstly used in DBS retinol determination based on the fact that retinol is excluded from erythrocytes. The method was linear in the concentration range of 0.04-300μg/mL. Both the between-run (n = 5) and within-run (n = 6) precision (relative standard deviations, RSD%) were below 8.42%. The spiked recoveries at 3 concentrations ranged from 86.48 to 98.13%. The internal standard (IS)-normalized matrix factor (MF) was 99.72% with a RSD% of 10.50% (n = 3). The accuracy was calibrated using two National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) serum-generated calibrants at concentrations of 0.1962 and 0.3948g/mL, and relative errors (RE% values) of 0.07% and 4.95% were found, respectively. A simple calibration model was first developed to convert DBS retinol concentration to the equivalent plasma retinol concentration, thereby enabling comparisons with clinical reference ranges and with studies using serum or plasma samples. Graphical abstract.

Dietary intake and micronutrient deficiency in children with cancer.

Data regarding micronutrient deficiencies in children with cancer are lacking. We measured micronutrients in a subset of children with cancer (n = 23) participating in a randomized trial of the neutropenic diet. Ninety-six percent of children had ≥1 micronutrient deficiency and 39% had ≥3 micronutrient deficiencies. Eighty-six percent of children had vitamin C deficiency, 87% had 25-hydroxyvitamin D deficiency, 50% had zinc deficiency, and 13% had vitamin A deficiency. Dietary intake did not correlate with micronutrient deficiency status. More data are needed regarding the prevalence and etiology of micronutrient deficiencies in children with cancer to further understand their implications and treatment.

Zinc Deficiency Is Associated with Anemia Among Children Under 24 Months-of-age in Rural Guatemala (P10-111-19)

ObjectivesAnemia is a major public health problem among young children. In addition to iron deficiency, other micronutrient deficiencies have been associated with anemia. The purpose of this study was to identify biomarkers associated with anemia in children <5 years from rural Guatemala. MethodsA total of 182 infants (6–24 m) and 207 preschoolers (36–60 m) were recruited from community surveillance to participate in a randomized controlled trial of nutrition and child development. Methods included measured weight, length/height and venous blood draws. Inclusion criteria were length/height-for-age z-score <-1.0 and Hb >7.0 g/dL. Cross-sectional analyses using generalized linear mixed models of baseline data examined associations between anemia (Hb <11.0 g/dL) and micronutrient deficiencies, adjusting for maternal, child and sociodemographic variables. Iron deficiency was defined as low ferritin based on inflammation status, and/or high soluble transferrin receptor, ≥1.97 mg/L. Deficiencies for other parameters were designated as: zinc <65 μg/dL; vitamin B12 < 200 pg/mL; and plasma folate <3 ng/mL or erythrocyte folate <100 ng/mL. ResultsPrevalence of anemia was 56% in infants and 12% in preschoolers. Among anemic infants/preschoolers, rates of iron, zinc, folate and vitamin B12 deficiencies were 83/75%; 63/18%; 3/4%; and 9/0%, respectively. For infants, the odds of anemia were higher when children were zinc deficient [OR = 3.59;95%CI (1.64–7.85)], after adjusting for community cluster, sex, age, maternal education and household size. No biomarkers were associated with anemia in preschoolers. ConclusionsIron and zinc are common micronutrient deficiencies in children from low- and middle-income countries. These findings suggest that micronutrient deficiencies coexist among children in Guatemala, and that zinc should be considered as part of the prevention strategies to reduce anemia. In preschoolers, no biomarkers were associated with anemia, suggesting that other biological and psychosocial factors could be influencing anemia in this age group. Funding SourcesThe Mathile Institute for the Advancement of Human Nutrition, Sackler Institute for Nutrition Science of the New York Academy of Sciences.

Rethinking integrated nutrition-health strategies to address micronutrient deficiencies in children under five in Mozambique.

In Mozambique, about two thirds of children 6–59 months of age are affected by vitamin A deficiency and anaemia. The objective of this case study is to provide programme considerations for planning, implementing, monitoring, and evaluating vitamin A and iron deficiency interventions within the context of lessons learned to date for vitamin A supplementation, micronutrient powders (MNPs), and food‐based strategies. For 15 years, the Mozambique Ministry of Health implemented twice‐yearly vitamin A supplementation through both campaigns and routine health services. Yet coverage in 2017 (55%) was not much higher than in 2003 (44%). Reaching every district/reaching every child, a strategy adapted from the field of immunization, was used to achieve equitable coverage of vitamin A and for microplanning of outreach services in health facilities, with support from the Maternal and Child Survival Program. In Mozambique, a free or subsidized distribution model for MNPs has been rolled out, yet integration of MNPs into infant and young child feeding programming (i.e., cooking demonstrations) is needed to reinforce “the who, what, and why” of MNPs through culturally sensitive behaviour change communication. Food‐based strategies to promote dietary diversity, such as through complementary feeding recipes, are also critical. To harmonize efforts, the Mozambique government should consider the development of a national strategy for the prevention and control of micronutrient malnutrition, with clear monitoring and evaluation targets. Ongoing monitoring of the prevalence of micronutrient deficiencies and coverage of implemented micronutrient interventions is needed to make evidence‐based decisions to drive nutrition–health programming.

Supplementation of micronutrients in children and food fortification initiatives in Sri Lanka: benefits versus risks.

In recent decades, Sri Lanka has made substantial progress in reducing the burden of micronutrient deficiencies in children by the provision of vitamin A megadose and micronutrient supplementation programs for children of 6-23 months, along with universal iodization of salt. Consumption of voluntarily fortified foods by children was also considerably increased. The objective of our study here was to review such interventions, which are beneficial in childhood, and to assess the risk of toxicity due to excessive intakes of iron, vitamin A, and iodine. Our analysis was performed using data from two national micronutrient surveys, market surveys, and key informant interviews. Data on coverage, usage, and nutrient content of certain foods were compiled to gauge consumption of iron, vitamin A, and iodine among children. We found that the severity of anemia and vitamin A and iodine deficiencies declined from moderate-to-severe and that supplementation and fortification can lead to an excess of vitamin A that may cause toxicity, while iron and iodine deficiency appears to be no longer a public health concern in Sri Lanka. We recommend review and scaling back of national supplementation programs and monitoring of fortification initiatives to prevent micronutrient toxicity in the future.

A Systematic Review of Micronutrient Deficiencies in Pediatric Inflammatory Bowel Disease.

This systematic review critically analyzes the current research on micronutrient deficiency in children with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and synthesizes these data to provide evidence-based guidelines for nutritional surveillance in this population. We searched 5 databases (Ovid Medline, PubMed, Scopus, CINAHL, and Cochrane Library) for studies evaluating micronutrients in patients with IBD using the following inclusion criteria: 1) original research, 2) published 1996 or later; 3) published in English; 4) human subjects; and 5) containing pediatric data. Studies were reviewed and included based on the strength of research methods. Data on the prevalence of micronutrient deficiencies in pediatric patients with IBD and risk factors for micronutrient deficiency in these patients were extracted from included studies and compared and discussed in preparation of the proposed guidelines and manuscript. A total of 39 studies were included in the final review. The data presented in these studies show that iron deficiency and vitamin D deficiency are common in pediatric patients with IBD. Vitamin B12 and folate deficiency are rare. Zinc deficiency, while not common, occurs at a higher rate in patients with Crohn's disease than in healthy controls. There was limited data on vitamins A, E, and C, and selenium, but deficiency of these micronutrients seems rare. We recommend annual surveillance of iron and vitamin D in pediatric patients with IBD regardless of disease activity or phenotype. Zinc should be monitored annually in patients with Crohn's disease. There is insufficient evidence to support routine screening for other micronutrient deficiencies.

Nutritional status, macro- and micronutrient deficiency in children with neurodevelopmental disorders

Nutritional status, macro- and micronutrient deficiency in children with neurodevelopmental disorders

What Approaches are Most Effective at Addressing Micronutrient Deficiency in Children 0\u20135 Years? A Review of Systematic Reviews

Introduction Even though micronutrient deficiency is still a major public health problem, it is still unclear which interventions are most effective in improving micronutrient status. This review therefore aims to summarize the evidence published in systematic reviews on intervention strategies that aim at improving micronutrient status in children under the age of five. Methods We searched the literature and included systematic reviews that reported on micronutrient status as a primary outcome for children of 0–5 years old, had a focus on low or middle income countries. Subsequently, papers were reviewed and selected by two authors. Results We included 4235 reviews in this systematic review. We found that (single or multiple) micronutrient deficiencies in pre-school children improved after providing (single or multiple) micronutrients. However home fortification did not always lead to significant increase in serum vitamin A, serum ferritin, hemoglobin or zinc. Commercial fortification did improve iron status. Cord clamping reduced the risk of anemia in infants up to 6 months and, in helminth endemic areas, anthelminthic treatment increased serum ferritin levels, hemoglobin and improved height for age z-scores. Anti-malaria treatment improved ferritin levels. Discussion Based on our results the clearest recommendations are: delayed cord clamping is an effective intervention for reducing anemia in early life. In helminth endemic areas iron status can be improved by anthelminthic treatment. Anti-malaria treatment can improve ferritin. In deficient populations, single iron, vitamin A and multimicronutrient supplementation can improve iron, vitamin A and multimicronutrient status respectively. While the impact of home-fortification on multimicronutrient status remains questionable, commercial iron fortification may improve iron status.

Iron Nutriture of the Fetus, Neonate, Infant, and Child

Iron is a key nutrient and is essential for the developing fetus, neonate, infant, and child. Iron requirements are high during early stages of life because it is critically important for the production of new red blood cells and muscle cells as well as brain development. Neonates, infants, and children obtain iron from dietary sources including breast milk (lactoferrin) and heme- and non-heme-containing foods. Iron deficiency (ID) is the most common micronutrient deficiency in children and pregnant women worldwide. ID and iron deficiency anemia (IDA) can affect growth and energy levels as well as motor and cognitive performance in the developing child. The fetus is completely dependent on maternal iron crossing through the placenta and, although it is generally well protected against deficiency at birth, ID in mothers can increase the risk of ID and IDA in their children as early as 4 months. This review will discuss the uses of iron, iron requirements, and the sources of iron from conception through childhood. In addition, it will describe the prevalence and clinical manifestations of ID and IDA in children and discuss recommendations for iron supplementation of children and pregnant women.

Serum Vitamins and Minerals at Diagnosis and Follow-up in Children With Celiac Disease.

Children with celiac disease (CD) may experience deficiencies of several micronutrients. The objectives of the present study were to determine the prevalence of micronutrient deficiencies in children with CD at diagnosis, 6 months, and 18 months after the start of a gluten-free diet (GFD), and examine any correlation between micronutrient deficiencies, serum tissue transglutaminase (TtG) immunoglobulin A (IgA) antibody titers, and the degree of mucosal damage at diagnosis. Children (<17 years) with CD had their serum vitamins, minerals, and anti-TtG IgA antibodies measured at diagnosis, 6 and 18 months after starting a GFD. Histopathological changes of duodenal biopsies at diagnosis were documented using modified MARSH classification. The medical records of 140 children (mean age at diagnosis 7.8 ± 4.01 years, 87 girls [621%]) with CD were examined. At diagnosis, serum vitamin D was the most commonly deficient vitamin in 70% of children. Serum ferritin was subnormal in 34.5% with zinc in 18.6% children but only 12 (10.9%) children had iron deficiency anemia. There was no correlation between micronutrient deficiencies at diagnosis and serum TtG IgA antibody titers or the degree of villous atrophy. The majority of serum levels of measured micronutrients had normalized after 6 months of starting GFD except for vitamin D, which improved but remained subnormal. At diagnosis, most children with CD have vitamin D deficiency. The degree of micronutrient deficiencies does not correlate with the degree of villous atrophy or serum titers of anti-TtG IgA antibodies.

Co-morbidities and micronutrient deficiencies in children with severe acute malnutrition

Background: To study the co-morbidities and nutritional deficiencies in hospitalized children of severe acute malnutrition (SAM).Methods: One year retrospective chart review of 150 cases of SAM was done in Paediatric unit of a medical college of northern India.Results: The mean age of study group was 17.3 months (6 months to 60 months’ age group). Diarrhoea (34.7%) and respiratory tract infection (31.33%) were the most common co-morbid conditions associated with this study. Tuberculosis was seen in 20% of cases whereas Measles was associated in 6.7% cases. Anaemia and Vitamin A deficiencies were common micronutrient deficiencies. A very high prevalence of intestinal helminthic infestation was present in this study. Ascaris lumbricoides being the most common parasite involved. Polyparasitism was present in 20% of cases.Conclusions: Early identification and management of co-morbidities can improve overall outcome and survival.

A hospital based Study on Co-morbidities in children with severe acute malnutrition

Introduction: Severe acute malnutrition, is characterized by wasting (marasmus), oedema (as a result of kwashiorkor), or both (marasmic kwashiorkor), and occurs mostly in children. Globally, co morbidities such as diarrhoea, acute respiratory tract infections and Malaria, which results from a relatively defective immune status, remain the major causes of death among children with severe acute malnutrition. This study was carried out to find out co-morbidities such as infections and micronutrient deficiencies in children with severe acute malnutrition. Methods: In this hospital based descriptive type of observational study, 125 severe acute malnourished children were included. Patients undergo relevant investigation to find out associated infectious co morbidities. Micronutrient deficiencies assessed by clinical signs. Results: 42% had diarrhea and 27% had acute respiratory tract infections as co morbid condition. Tuberculosis was diagnosed in 13% of cases. Anemia was present in 86% cases. Signs of vitamin B and vitamin A deficiency were seen in 24% and 6% cases. 97% children have inadequate vitamin D levels. Conclusions: Timely identification and treatment of various co-morbidities is likely to break undernutrition-disease cycle, and to decrease mortality and improve outcome. Nearly all SAM patients have inadequacy of Vitamin D. So Vitamin D supplement should be given to all SAM patients.

Rickets, BeriBeri, and Iron Deficiency: micronutrient deficiencies in children

Some “forgotten” micronutrient deficiencies continue to be common in children. Deficiencies of vitamin D and/or calcium can cause rickets, a crippling condition related to poor mineralization of growing bones. Rickets is diagnosed by identifying skeletal deformities, elevation of alkaline phosphatase levels, and abnormal epiphyses on x-ray. Treatment is with vitamin D and calcium. Prevention hinges on improving the daily intake of calcium, regular sun exposure, or dietary supplementation. Beriberi is due to thiamine deficiency. Infants with beriberi present in heart failure while older children present with neurological abnormalities. Treatment is with thiamine, and prevention requires alterations to improve dietary thiamine intake – by supplementing mothers of breastfed babies, increasing legume and unpolished rice intake, and diversifying diets. Iron deficiency continues to be a problem for nearly half of the world’s children. Bhutan has made strides to eliminate this problem through active de-worming programs and iron supplementation programs.

Enteral Nutrition in the Management of Pediatric Intestinal Failure

Intestinal failure is an uncommon but devastating condition whose natural history has dramatically improved over the past two decades (1). Infants with intestinal failure due to severe short bowel syndrome or other diagnoses previously considered incompatible with life are now routinely being saved and cared for in cutting edge, multidisciplinary programs. Enteral nutrition plays a central role in the management of children with intestinal failure. This review provides an overview of enteral nutrition in pediatric intestinal failure, with specific emphasis on recent advances in clinical management, patient outcomes, and emerging therapies.

Micronutrient Status of Children Receiving Prolonged Enteral Nutrition

Background and Aims: The aim of this study was to assess the micronutrient status of children receiving prolonged enteral nutrition. Methods: This cross-sectional single-center study included all 64 children (median age 6.8 years) receiving enteral nutrition providing >50% of daily energy intake for more than 6 months (median duration of enteral nutrition 43 months). The characteristics of the patients and mode of enteral nutrition were recorded. The concentrations of iron, zinc, copper, selenium and vitamins A, D, E and C were measured in plasma. Results: Twelve children (19%) had iron deficiency. A high 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration was recorded in 20% of the children, but none had associated hypercalcemia. Fifty-two children (81%) had low zinc concentrations in both plasma and erythrocytes. Plasma zinc, calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D concentrations were significantly lower in children receiving fiber supplementation. Abnormal micronutrient concentrations were found more frequently in the children receiving fiber supplementation. No other predisposing factors were associated with micronutrient deficiencies. Conclusion: Long-term enteral nutrition can lead to micronutrient deficiencies in children, whose micronutrient concentrations may require regular checking. Fiber supplementation might reduce the bioavailability of zinc, calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D.

Early Childhood Milk and Milk Products Intake-Maternal Perceptions &amp; Practices

The prevalence of micronutrient deficiencies in young children has a profound effect on their immune system, growth and mental development. However, many micronutrients deficiencies in children such as calcium can be prevented. This research has explored the perceptions and practices of mothers, residing in Karachi, regarding milk and milk products (MAMPs) intake in children of age 2-5 years, in order to find out the amount of MAMPs in their diet and the factors affecting such intake. This is a qualitative exploratory study. Semi structured, in-depth interviews were conducted. Eighteen mothers whose children’s age were 2-5 years old were purposively recruited from three daycare centers of three different socioeconomic status areas of Karachi. The MAMPs intake of children in three different socioeconomic areas of Karachi was in accordance with 2006’s, American Academy of Pediatrics recommendations for requirements, i.e. 2 cups per day of Milk/Dairy for 2-4 years old children. However, the type of MAMPs and children’s preferences differs considerably. The most preferred MAMPs among children of age were yogurt and plain milk. The preferences for MAMPs in children were mainly determined by their peers, mother’s ethnicity and media advertisements. Most of the mothers did not prefer giving MAMPs in several common childhood illnesses due to prevailing misconceptions. It was also explored that maternal ethnicity plays considerable role in selecting and combining various food items mainly fish with MAMPs. Recognizing the MAMPs intake of children and their mother’s perceptions and practices can help researchers to better understand children’s preferences for different MAMPs and the factors influencing their intake. Food policies and recommendations related to MAMPs in children can be evaluated for their relevance to children’s ecological determinants to address the issues related to growth and development in early ages.

Effect of provision of daily zinc and iron with several micronutrients on growth and morbidity among young children in Pakistan: a cluster-randomised trial

Powders containing iron and other micronutrients are recommended as a strategy to prevent nutritional anaemia and other micronutrient deficiencies in children. We assessed the effects of provision of two micronutrient powder formulations, with or without zinc, to children in Pakistan. We did a cluster randomised trial in urban and rural sites in Sindh, Pakistan. A baseline survey identified 256 clusters, which were randomly assigned (within urban and rural strata, by computer-generated random numbers) to one of three groups: non-supplemented control (group A), micronutrient powder without zinc (group B), or micronutrient powder with 10 mg zinc (group C). Children in the clusters aged 6 months were eligible for inclusion in the study. Powders were to be given daily between 6 and 18 months of age; follow-up was to age 2 years. Micronutrient powder sachets for groups B and C were identical except for colour; investigators and field and supervisory staff were masked to composition of the micronutrient powders until trial completion. Parents knew whether their child was receiving supplementation, but did not know whether the powder contained zinc. Primary outcomes were growth, episodes of diarrhoea, acute lower respiratory tract infection, fever, and incidence of admission to hospital. This trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT00705445. The trial was done between Nov 1, 2008, and Dec 31, 2011. 947 children were enrolled in group A clusters, 910 in group B clusters, and 889 in group C clusters. Micronutrient powder administration was associated with lower risk of iron-deficiency anaemia at 18 months compared with the control group (odds ratio [OR] for micronutrient powder without zinc=0·20, 95% CI 0·11-0·36; OR for micronutrient powder with zinc=0·25, 95% CI 0·14-0·44). Compared with the control group, children in the group receiving micronutrient powder without zinc gained an extra 0·31 cm (95% CI 0·03-0·59) between 6 and 18 months of age and children receiving micronutrient powder with zinc an extra 0·56 cm (0·29-0·84). We recorded strong evidence of an increased proportion of days with diarrhoea (p=0·001) and increased incidence of bloody diarrhoea (p=0·003) between 6 and 18 months in the two micronutrient powder groups, and reported chest indrawing (p=0·03). Incidence of febrile episodes or admission to hospital for diarrhoea, respiratory problems, or febrile episodes did not differ between the three groups. Use of micronutrient powders reduces iron-deficiency anaemia in young children. However, the excess burden of diarrhoea and respiratory morbidities associated with micronutrient powder use and the very small effect on growth recorded suggest that a careful assessment of risks and benefits must be done in populations with malnourished children and high diarrhoea burdens. Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.

High Prevalence of Multiple Micronutrient Deficiencies in Children with Intestinal Failure: A Longitudinal Study

To determine the prevalence of micronutrient deficiencies in children with intestinal failure as they transitioned from parenteral nutrition (PN) to enteral nutrition (EN). We reviewed medical records of all patients with severe intestinal failure treated from 1999 to 2008 at a multidisciplinary intestinal rehabilitation program who had undergone micronutrient biochemical monitoring. The cohort of 30 children (mean age, 5 years; range, 2 to 9 years; 18 boys) had median PN duration of 23 weeks (IQR, 13 to 34 weeks). Median transition from PN to full EN lasted 12 weeks (IQR, 8 to 20 weeks); during this transition, 33% of patients had at least one vitamin deficiency and 77% at least one mineral deficiency. After transition to 100% EN, 70% had at least one vitamin deficiency and 77% had at least one mineral deficiency, with the most common deficiencies being vitamin D (68%), zinc (67%), and iron deficiency (37%). After transition to 100% EN, multivariate analysis identified regular use of a multivitamin supplement (P=.004) and intact ileocecal valve (P=.02) as protective against the development of vitamin deficiencies, independent of bowel length, gestational age, and days on PN. Children with intestinal failure exhibit a high prevalence of micronutrient deficiencies during intestinal rehabilitation. Regular monitoring and aggressive supplementation in children with intestinal failure is warranted.