Microfocus X-ray Tube Research Articles

Tomography of human trabecular bone with a laser-wakefield driven x-ray source

A laser-wakefield driven x-ray source is used for the radiography of human bone. The betatron motion of accelerated electrons generates x-rays which are hard (critical energy keV), have small source size (<3 μm) and high average brightness. The x-rays are generated from a helium gas cell which is near-instantly replenishable, and thus the average photon flux is limited by the repetition rate of the driving laser rather than the breakdown of the x-ray source. A tomograph of a human bone sample was recorded with a resolution down to 50 μm. The photon flux was sufficiently high that a radiograph could be taken with each laser shot, and the fact that x-ray beams were produced on 97% of shots minimised failed shots and facilitated full micro-computed tomography in a reasonable time scale of several hours, limited only by the laser repetition rate. The x-ray imaging beamline length (not including the laser) is shorter than that of a synchrotron source due to the high accelerating fields and small source size. Hence this interesting laboratory-based source may one day bridge the gap between small microfocus x-ray tubes and large synchrotron facilities.

Quantitative X-ray phase-contrast microtomography from a compact laser-driven betatron source.

X-ray phase-contrast imaging has recently led to a revolution in resolving power and tissue contrast in biomedical imaging, microscopy and materials science. The necessary high spatial coherence is currently provided by either large-scale synchrotron facilities with limited beamtime access or by microfocus X-ray tubes with rather limited flux. X-rays radiated by relativistic electrons driven by well-controlled high-power lasers offer a promising route to a proliferation of this powerful imaging technology. A laser-driven plasma wave accelerates and wiggles electrons, giving rise to a brilliant keV X-ray emission. This so-called betatron radiation is emitted in a collimated beam with excellent spatial coherence and remarkable spectral stability. Here we present a phase-contrast microtomogram of a biological sample using betatron X-rays. Comprehensive source characterization enables the reconstruction of absolute electron densities. Our results suggest that laser-based X-ray technology offers the potential for filling the large performance gap between synchrotron- and current X-ray tube-based sources.

Characteristic X-ray absorptiometry applied to the assessment of tissue-engineered cartilage development.

Transmission and tomographic X-ray measurements are useful in assessing bone structures, but only a few studies have examined cartilage growth because of the poor contrast in conventional X-ray imaging. In this study, we attempted to use the linear attenuation coefficient (LAC) as a metric of tissue-engineered cartilage development, which would be useful in high-throughput screening of cartilage products. Assuming that the LAC is related to the amount of extracellular matrix (ECM) in terms of the density and its atomic components, we measured X-ray absorption through tissue-engineered cartilage constructs. Characteristic X-ray beams from a molybdenum microfocus X-ray tube were employed to avoid beam hardening. The correlation of the LAC with mechanical properties was analyzed for verification. The LAC was higher for chondrocyte constructs and lower for fibroblast-dominant constructs and was consistent with the quantification of toluidine blue staining, which is a proof of ECM production. The LAC was positively correlated with the bending modulus but negatively correlated with the dynamic elastic modulus and stiffness, possibly because of the remaining scaffold. The LAC has the potential to be used as a metric of development of tissue-engineered cartilage. However, the calcified regions should be excluded from analysis to avoid decreasing the correlation between the LAC and the amount of ECM.

Experimental setup and the system performance for single-grid-based phase-contrast x-ray imaging (PCXI) with a microfocus x-ray tube

In this work, we investigated a simplified approach to phase-contrast x-ray imaging (PCXI) by using a single antiscatter grid and a microfocus x-ray tube, which has potential to open the way to further widespread use of PCXI into the related application areas. We established a table-top setup for PCXI studies of biological and non-biological samples and investigated the system performance. The PCXI system consists of a focused-linear grid having a strip density of 200lines/in. (JPI Healthcare Corp.), a microfocus x-ray tube having a focal spot size of about 5μm (Hamamatsu, L7910), and a high-resolution CMOS imaging detector having a pixel size of 48μm (Rad-icon Imaging Corp., Shad-o-Box 2048). By using our prototype system, we successfully obtained attenuation, scattering, and differential phase-contrast x-ray images of improved visibility from the raw images of several samples at x-ray tube conditions of 50kVp and 6mAs. Our initial results indicate that the single-grid-based approach seems a useful method for PCXI with great simplicity and minimal requirements on the setup alignment.

Biological object recognition in μ-radiography images

This study presents an applicability of real-time microradiography to biological objects, namely to horse chestnut leafminer, Cameraria ohridella (Insecta: Lepidoptera, Gracillariidae) and following image processing focusing on image segmentation and object recognition. The microradiography of insects (such as horse chestnut leafminer) provides a non-invasive imaging that leaves the organisms alive. The imaging requires a high spatial resolution (micrometer scale) radiographic system. Our radiographic system consists of a micro-focus X-ray tube and two types of detectors. The first is a charge integrating detector (Hamamatsu flat panel), the second is a pixel semiconductor detector (Medipix2 detector). The latter allows detection of single quantum photon of ionizing radiation. We obtained numerous horse chestnuts leafminer pupae in several microradiography images easy recognizable in automatic mode using the image processing methods. We implemented an algorithm that is able to count a number of dead and alive pupae in images. The algorithm was based on two methods: 1) noise reduction using mathematical morphology filters, 2) Canny edge detection. The accuracy of the algorithm is higher for the Medipix2 (average recall for detection of alive pupae =0.99, average recall for detection of dead pupae =0.83), than for the flat panel (average recall for detection of alive pupae =0.99, average recall for detection of dead pupae =0.77). Therefore, we conclude that Medipix2 has lower noise and better displays contours (edges) of biological objects. Our method allows automatic selection and calculation of dead and alive chestnut leafminer pupae. It leads to faster monitoring of the population of one of the world's important insect pest.

Experimental Study for Phase-contrast X-ray Imaging Based on a Single Antiscatter Grid and a Polychromatic X-ray Source

In this work, we performed a proof-of-concept experiment for phase-contrast x-ray imaging (PCXI) based on a single antiscatter grid and a polychromatic x-ray source. We established a table-top setup which consists of a focused-linear grid having a strip density of 200 lines/inch, a microfocus x-ray tube having a focal-spot size of about 5 μm, and a CMOS-type flat-panel detector having a pixel size of 48 μm. By using our prototype PCXI system and the Fourier demodulation technique, we successfully obtained attenuation, scattering, and differential phase-contrast images of improved visibility from the raw images of several selected samples at x-ray tube conditions of 90 kV p and 0.1 mAs. Further, fusion image (e.g., the attenuation＋the scattering) may have an advantage in displaying details of the sample’s structures that are not clearly visible in the conventional attenuation image. Our experimental results indicate that single-grid-based approach seems a useful method for PCXI with great simplicity and minimal requirements on the setup alignment.

X-ray micro-CT scanner for small animal imaging based on Timepix detector technology

We describe a newly developed compact micro-CT scanner with rotating gantry equipped with a Timepix Quad hybrid pixel semiconductor detector and a micro-focus X-ray tube providing spatial resolution down to 30µm. The resolving power of the device in relation to soft tissue sensitivity is demonstrated using a tissue-equivalent phantom and different types of biological samples. The results demonstrate that the use of noiseless particle counting detectors is a promising way to achieve sufficient soft tissue contrast even without any contrast agents.

Optimum design for the carbon nanotube based micro-focus X-ray tube

The current work reports the optimum design conditions of a direct current plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition grown multi-walled carbon nanotube based micro-focus X-ray tube with dual focusing lens. Extensive simulations were performed in order to determine the configuration that would generate a desirable focal spot size. Several dimensions of the X-ray basic structure and the focusing lens were manipulated using a commercially available simulation package. A manipulation of the factors (i.e. geometric parameter, axial distances, and bias voltages variances) and their effects on the focal spot size were also analyzed. A remarkable reduction in the focal spot size was achieved at the anode target via simulation and high resolution images were obtained in a prototype X-ray generator through standard line pattern test.

A new spectrometer design for the x-ray spectroscopy of laser-produced plasmas with high (sub-ns) time resolution.

This paper describes a new type of x-ray crystal spectrometer, which can be used in combination with gated x-ray detectors to obtain spectra from laser-produced plasmas with a high (sub-ns) time resolution. The spectrometer consists of a convex, spherically bent crystal, which images individual spectral lines as perfectly straight lines across multiple, sequentially gated, strip detectors. Since the Bragg-reflected rays are divergent, the distance between detector and crystal is arbitrary, so that this distance can be appropriately chosen to optimize the experimental arrangement with respect to the detector parameters. The spectrometer concept was verified in proof-of-principle experiments by imaging the Lβ1- and Lβ2-lines of tungsten, at 9.6735 and 9.96150 keV, from a micro-focus x-ray tube with a tungsten target onto a two-dimensional pixilated Pilatus detector, using a convex, spherically bent Si-422 crystal with a radius of curvature of 500 mm.

A Microfocus X-Ray Tube with Rotating Anode

The design of the first domestic microfocal X-ray tube with rotating anode is described. The results of tests of a prototype of the tube are given.

Characterization of a 2x3 Timepix assembly with a 500μm thick silicon sensor

The Timepix detector can be used for single photon counting or to perform time-over-threshold analyses on single events. By setting an energy threshold, photons can be selected according to their energy. Here, we present the characterization of an assembly of six Timepix chips, bonded to a monolithic 500 μ m thick silicon wafer.Measurements with monochromatic radiation were carried out at the Topo-Tomo beamline at the ANKA synchrotron. With these measurements, an energy calibration was performed and the presampling modulation transfer function (MTFpre) was evaluated for different threshold settings and different photon energies, leading to values from 16.75 to 25.2 mm−1 for a MTFpre of 10 %.The detector was also used for computed tomography in a lab setup with a micro-focus X-ray tube. For these measurements, the detector's thresholds were equalized in order to obtain optimally homogeneous flat field images. With this method, we can increase the dynamic range of the detector without overexposing outlier pixels.

High-resolution time-lapse tomography of rat vertebrae during compressive loading: deformation response analysis

This paper is focused on investigation of mechanical properties of rat vertebrae during compressive loading in the longitudinal direction of rat's spine. High-resolution time-lapse micro-tomography was used as a tool to create models of the inner structure and deformed shape in pre-defined deformation steps. First, peripheral areas of vertebra specimen were embedded in polymethyl methacrylate to obtain proper boundary conditions of contact between specimen and loading plattens. Experimental loading device designed for application in X-ray setups was utilized to compress the vertebrae in several deformation steps. High-resolution micro-tomography scanning was carried out at each deformation step. Specimen was irradiated in tomography device equipped with microfocus X-ray tube with 5μm focal spot size and large area flat panel detector. Spatial resolution of reconstructed three-dimensional images was approximately 10μm. Digital volume correlation algorithm was utilized in order to assess displacements in the microstructure in every loading increment. Finite element model of vertebra was created from volumetric data reconstructed from tomography of the undeformed specimen. Simulated compressive test of the developed finite element model was performed in order to compare stiffness and displacements obtained by digital volume correlation and finite element simulation.

A fast embedded readout system for large-area Medipix and Timepix systems

In this work we present a novel readout electronics for an X-ray sensor based on a Si crystal bump-bonded to an array of 3 × 2 Medipix ASICs. The pixel size is 55 μm × 55 μm with a total number of ∼ 400k pixels and a sensitive area of 42 mm × 28 mm. The readout electronics operate Medipix-2 MXR or Timepix ASICs with a clock speed of 125 MHz. The data acquisition system is centered around an FPGA and each of the six ASICs has a dedicated I/O port for simultaneous data acquisition. The settings of the auxiliary devices (ADCs and DACs) are also processed in the FPGA. Moreover, a high-resolution timer operates the electronic shutter to select the exposure time from 8 ns to several milliseconds. A sophisticated trigger is available in hardware and software to synchronize the acquisition with external electro-mechanical motors. The system includes a diagnostic subsystem to check the sensor temperature and to control the cooling Peltier cells and a programmable high-voltage generator to bias the crystal. A network cable transfers the data, encapsulated into the UDP protocol and streamed at 1 Gb/s. Therefore most notebooks or personal computers are able to process the data and to program the system without a dedicated interface. The data readout software is compatible with the well-known Pixelman 2.x running both on Windows and GNU/Linux. Furthermore the open architecture encourages users to write their own applications. With a low-level interface library which implements all the basic features, a MATLAB or Python script can be implemented for special manipulations of the raw data. In this paper we present selected images taken with a microfocus X-ray tube to demonstrate the capability to collect the data at rates up to 120 fps corresponding to 0.76 Gb/s.

Texture development in Ti/Al filament wires produced by accumulative swaging and bundling

Mechanical properties of ultra-fine grained materials are interesting for advanced engineering applications. For producing ultra-fine grained microstructures, various top-down processes of severe plastic deformation like equal channel angular pressing, high pressure torsion and accumulative roll bonding are available. The evolution of texture with respect to deformation by an alternative severe plastic deformation process, called accumulative swaging and bundling, is shown for ultra-fine grained Ti/Al composite wires, suitable for structural applications because of their high specific strength. In this cyclic process, an aluminium rod is inserted into a titanium tube before being swaged with an areal reduction of 20% per pass to a true strain of 4.3. After cleaning and cutting the resulting composite wire into 37 pieces, these are stacked in hexagonal arrangement into another Ti tube of the initial dimension before deformation is continued.The local texture gradient of the accumulative swaging and bundling composites was studied using a X-ray microdiffraction system based on a D8 Discover (Bruker AXS GmbH) equipped with a microfocus X-ray tube Iμ S and an area detector VÅNTEC-2000. The results are discussed with respect to the grain refining deformation process starting from the initial texture measured by synchrotron and neutron diffraction, respectively.The local Al and Ti texture evolution is related to the deformation mode, which is similar to extrusion. As such, an Al〈111〉+〈100〉-double fibre and a Ti〈101¯0〉-fibre emerge as the main texture components, each revealing gradients related to the deformation process. In particular, the local Al texture – being a function of both radial measurement position and deformation stage – can be correlated to material and process related issues like plastic flow and the superposition effect due to encapsulated filaments, respectively.

Quantification of breast composition by using a dual-energy technique with a photon-counting detector: Monte Carlo simulation studies

Photon-counting detectors with energy-discrimination capabilities are able to reduce radiation dose and suppress noise compared with conventional detectors for X-ray imaging. These detectors are suitable for spectral X-ray imaging because they can measure the energy of each photon and provide spectral information. One potential application of photon-counting detectors with energy-discrimination capabilities is the quantification of breast composition by using dual-energy techniques. In this study, we implemented quantitative breast imaging with dual-energy techniques by using Monte Carlo simulations. An X-ray imaging system was simulated with a photon-counting detector based on cadmium zinc telluride and a micro-focus X-ray tube. In order to decompose three materials with two spectral measurements, we applied an additional constraint that the sum of the volumes of each material be equivalent to the volume of the mixture. Inverse fitting functions with the least-squares estimation were used to obtain fitting coefficients and calculate volume fractions for each material. The results showed that the degree of decomposition for the composition included in the mixtures varied with the type of composition and the inverse fitting function. High-order fitting functions increased the quantitative accuracy, but the uncertainty of the decomposed images was increased for high-order fitting functions. This study demonstrates that it is possible to quantify breast composition by using dual-energy techniques and photon-counting detectors without an additional exposure and that the decomposed images should be evaluated by considering both their uncertainties and quantitative accuracies.

X-ray cell tracking: from ex-vivo to in-vivo experiments

The capacity to track cells (cell tracking) using x-rays on ex-vivo specimens of both malignant and non-malignant cell lines on small animals has been demonstrated recently. Gold nanoparticles have been used as a cellular contrast agent to render cells visible in x-ray microCT acquisitions. The limits of the technique proposed are basically driven by the imaging system used. Single cell resolution can be achieved using synchrotron radiation in-vitro or ex-vivo samples. Micro-focus x-ray tubes can be used to obtain high resolution cell tracking but with some limitations. However, the translation from ex-vivo to in-vivo experiments is not straightforward. The dose restrictions required for in-vivo longitudinal experiments set severe limitations on the technique. Here we present a detailed investigation showing a significant reduction of x-ray dose for the tracking of brain tumour cells. Monte Carlo simulations have been performed considering different spatial resolutions, photon fluence, number of projections, lesion dimension and cell contrast dilution. The findings are compared with real samples imaged using the same parameters. A pioneering in-vivo experiment conducted at the SYRMEP beamline (Elettra, Basovizza, Italy) is presented here as proof of principle of in-vivo longitudinal x-ray cell tracking experiments on small animals at low x-ray doses.

ALBIRA: A small animal PET/SPECT/CT imaging system

The authors have developed a trimodal PET∕SPECT∕CT scanner for small animal imaging. The gamma ray subsystems are based on monolithic crystals coupled to multianode photomultiplier tubes (MA-PMTs), while computed tomography (CT) comprises a commercially available microfocus x-ray tube and a CsI scintillator 2D pixelated flat panel x-ray detector. In this study the authors will report on the design and performance evaluation of the multimodal system. X-ray transmission measurements are performed based on cone-beam geometry. Individual projections were acquired by rotating the x-ray tube and the 2D flat panel detector, thus making possible a transaxial field of view (FOV) of roughly 80 mm in diameter and an axial FOV of 65 mm for the CT system. The single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) component has a dual head detector geometry mounted on a rotating gantry. The distance between the SPECT module detectors can be varied in order to optimize specific user requirements, including variable FOV. The positron emission tomography (PET) system is made up of eight compact modules forming an octagon with an axial FOV of 40 mm and a transaxial FOV of 80 mm in diameter. The main CT image quality parameters (spatial resolution and uniformity) have been determined. In the case of the SPECT, the tomographic spatial resolution and system sensitivity have been evaluated with a (99m)Tc solution using single-pinhole and multi-pinhole collimators. PET and SPECT images were reconstructed using three-dimensional (3D) maximum likelihood and ordered subset expectation maximization (MLEM and OSEM) algorithms developed by the authors, whereas the CT images were obtained using a 3D based FBP algorithm. CT spatial resolution was 85 μm while a uniformity of 2.7% was obtained for a water filled phantom at 45 kV. The SPECT spatial resolution was better than 0.8 mm measured with a Derenzo-like phantom for a FOV of 20 mm using a 1-mm pinhole aperture collimator. The full width at half-maximum PET radial spatial resolution at the center of the field of view was 1.55 mm. The SPECT system sensitivity for a FOV of 20 mm and 15% energy window was 700 cps∕MBq (7.8 × 10(-2)%) using a multi-pinhole equipped with five apertures 1 mm in diameter, whereas the PET absolute sensitivity was 2% for a 350-650 keV energy window and a 5 ns timing window. Several animal images are also presented. The new small animal PET∕SPECT∕CT proposed here exhibits high performance, producing high-quality images suitable for studies with small animals. Monolithic design for PET and SPECT scintillator crystals reduces cost and complexity without significant performance degradation.

Single crystal scintillator plates used for light weight material X-ray radiography

Very thin scintillator imaging plates have recently become of great interest. In high resolution X-ray projection imaging, very thin scintillators of about 5-20 micrometres are used to achieve high spatial resolution. Such thin screens are mainly used in micro-CT and nano-CT systems with either micro-focus X-ray tubes or with synchrotron sources. This work deals with a high resolution CCD camera in connection with an optical system and different single crystal scintillators in application for low energy X-ray micro-radiography. The thin screens used were prepared by mechanical polishing from Y3Al5O12 or Lu3Al5O12 single crystals. The screens can be used in equipment for the detection of different kinds of radiation and particles (UV, VUV, electrons or ions or their beams, X- or gamma-rays). A high resolution open type micro-focus X-ray tube was used to achieve the high resolution. The results show that the single crystal plates exhibit high spatial resolution and high sensitivity to low energy X-rays resulting in high image contrast. The use of the plates is highly suitable for light weight (low Z) material X-ray radiography. The resolution achieved is demonstrated using a test grid. Several light weight objects are imaged using the thin plates.

High resolution radiography of ambers with pixel detectors

Radiography serves as a powerful non-destructive technique for studying inner structure of biological samples and materials. In the last years X-ray imaging has taken advantage of the developments in instrumentation such as table-top micro-focus X-ray tubes and quantum counting pixel detectors. The imaging setups used for our measurements allow for the observation of tiny samples including fossils in amber. The main goal of the study was to apply microradiography as representative of non-destructive and non-invasive methods for imaging fossils in amber. Those fossils are generally not easy to visualize, especially their internal structures. We investigated a combination of sources and detectors: (a) an X-ray unit for mammography with tungsten anode, emissive spot of 100 μm and an amorphous selenium imager; (b) a micro-focus X-ray tube with tungsten anode, emissive spot of 5 μm and a flat panel imager; (c) a nano-focus X-ray tube with tungsten anode, with gauge of emissive spot of 1 μm and as imager the pixel semiconductor detector Medipix2. The study of fossils in amber can be for example not well visible because of the presence of organic detritus from various sources. The amber preserves various ancient biological objects which are fully or partly saturated with amber resin. These samples attenuate X-rays similarly, but the use of pixel detectors enables capturing these differences, without permanent destruction of the samples (cracking, slicing, etc.). Microradiographic studies are completed by the observation of amber fossils in scanning and transmission electron microscopes.

Effects of Tube Voltage on Phase-Contrast Imaging for Different Microfocus X-Ray Tubes

In the past decade, phase-contrast imaging (PCI) has become a hot research with an increased improvement of the image contrast with respect to conventional absorption radiography. In this paper, effects of tube voltage (kVp) on propagation-based phase-contrast imaging have been investigated with two types of microfocus x-ray tubes, a conventional sealed x-ray tube with the focal spot size of 13 - 20 μm and an open x-ray tube with minimum focal spot size less than 2 μm. A cooled x-ray CCD detector with the pixel size of 24 μm was used to acquire digital images. Two thin plastic sheets with different thickness were used as radiography phantoms. Two different phenomena were observed for the two x-ray tubes. For the open tube, phase-contrast effect has a slight drop with the increasing of tube voltage, however, it is opposite for the sealed tube. A further investigation indicates that the variation of focal spot size causes the abnormal result for the sealed tube. It also shows that phase-contrast effect is more sensitive to focal spot size than tube voltage.