Microcrystalline Cellulose Samples Research Articles

DEVELOPMENT OF MYCROCRYSTALLINE CELLULOSE ORIGINATE FROM SAGO (METROXYLON SAGU) STEM BARK BY HYDROLISIS METHODE USING NITRIC ACID

Objective: Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) is an essential excipient in tablet formulation. Mostly MCC was obtained from wooden conifer stem fiber, therefore environment issues had been came up. Alternative sources for MCC which offer friendly conifer wood need to be explored. This study aimed to isolate and determine the characteristics of MCC originated from Sago (Metroxylon sago Rottb.) stem fibers as an promising alternative of MCC. Methods: MCC was prepared through pre-hydrolysis using an acetic acid solution, alkali heating using NaOH solution, and acid hydrolysis using nitric acid 0.3 N using three variations of heating temperature, namely 90, 95 and 100 °C. The characterization carried out were pharmaceutical grade, powder properties, FTIR analysis and powder morphology by SEM. Results: The yields obtained were 66.02; 65.53 and 65.08%, respectively. The characteristics of the MCC sample based on pharmaceutical grade quality were white to yellowish white powder, odorless, tasteless, insoluble in: ether, 96% alcohol, HCl 2N and NaOH 1N. The pH of the MCC suspension were 5.07-5.12, while moisture content were 3.67-4.17%, with loss on drying value as much as 0.37-0.4%, and ash content 1-2.17%. The value of permanganate number were 0.09-0.11, Hausner factor was between 1.05-1.25, and angle of repose were between 11.4-24.8°. Conclusion: Based on the results, it can be concluded that Sago is potent natural resource for MCC. The resulting MCC revealed physicochemical and characteristic of MCC, which almost similar to Avicel PH 102 as standard.

Comparative study on liquid versus gas phase hydrochloric acid hydrolysis for microcrystalline cellulose isolation from sugarcane bagasse

Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) was successfully synthesized from sugarcane bagasse using a rapid, low-temperature hydrochloric acid (HCl) gas treatment. The primary aim was to develop an energy-efficient “green” cellulose extraction process. Response surface methodology optimized the liquid-phase hydrolysis conditions to 3.3 % HCl at 117 °C for 127 min to obtain MCC with 350 degree of polymerization. An alternative gas-phase approach utilizing gaseous HCl diluted in hot 40 °C air was proposed to accelerate MCC production. The cellulose pulp was moistened to 15–18 % moisture content and then exposed to HCl gas, which was absorbed by the moisture in the cellulose fibers to generate a highly concentrated acidic solution that hydrolyzed the cellulose. The cellulose pulp was isolated from depithed bagasse through soda pulping, multistage bleaching and cold alkali purification. Hydrolysis was conducted by saturating the moist cellulose fibers with gaseous HCl mixed with hot air. Extensive analytical characterization using FT-IR, XRD, SEM, TGA, DSC, particle size, and porosity analyses verified comparable physicochemical attributes between MCC samples prepared via liquid and gas phase methods. The gas-produced MCC revealed 85% crystallinity, 71 Å crystallite dimensions, and thermally stable rod-shaped morphology with an average diameter below 200 μm. The similar material properties validate the proposed gas-based technique as an equally effective yet more energy-efficient alternative to conventional aqueous acid hydrolysis for fabricating highly pure MCC powders from lignocellulose. This sustainable approach enables the value-addition of sugarcane bagasse agro-industrial residue into cellulosic nanomaterials for wide-ranging industrial applications. In summary, the key achievements of this work are rapid MCC production under mild temperatures using HCl gas, optimization of liquid phase hydrolysis, successful demonstration of gas phase method, and extensive characterization verifying equivalence between both protocols. The gas methodology offers a greener cellulose extraction process from biomass.

Unraveling the Effect of Kraft and Organosolv Processes on the Physicochemical Properties and Thermal Stability of Cellulose and Its Microcrystals Produced from Eucalyptus Globulus

Eucalyptus Globulus (EG) is a virtually untapped forest source that belongs to the hardwood family. The objective of this research is to understand the effect of two different isolation techniques, i.e., kraft and organosolv procedures, followed by either acidified sodium chlorite or alkaline hydrogen peroxide treatment on the properties of cellulose and microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) derived from EG. The MCC samples were successfully prepared from cellulose via acid hydrolysis. A comparative study was carried out on the extracted cellulose fibers and MCC samples through deep characterizations of lignocellulosic content, functional groups, crystallinity, thermal properties, and surface morphology. The detailed analyses exhibited that the prepared MCC samples using various approaches are similar to those of commercial MCC. It is revealed that the organosolv treatment followed by acidic bleaching provides the purest MCC with good thermal features, where the obtained cellulose has a glucose content of more than 97% and a degradation temperature of around 343 °C. The present work provides new insight into the effect of various extraction procedures on EG-MCC; these procedures are expected to be used in different industrial applications such as in biorefinery, dietary food, packaging, films, or reinforcement of polymer matrices.

Delignification’s effect on microcrystalline cellulose obtained from oil palm empty fruit bunch fibres

The effects of acidified chlorite (NaClO2) and totally chlorine free (TCF) bleaching were evaluated relative to the properties of microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) fabricated from oil palm empty fruit bunch fibres (OPEFB). The MCC properties were analyzed using X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) methods, and they were compared with commercial MCC. The results revealed that all MCC belongs to cellulose type 1 and OPEFB-NaClO2-MCC showed a higher crystallinity index than OPEFB-TCF-MCC. The TGA indicated that all MCC samples showed a higher decomposition temperature compared to pure cellulose. However, OPEFB-NaClO2-MCC showed better thermal stability than OPEFB-TCF-MCC. It was clear from SEM images that the different MCC particles had rough surfaces and micro-sized particles. Overall, results confirmed that the obtained MCC samples displayed comparable properties with those of commercial MCC. The MCC produced from OPEFB using NaClO2 is a promising material to prepare high value-added products compared to MCC produced using TCF delignification treatment.

Valorization of Pineapple Residues from the Colombian Agroindustry to Produce Cellulose Nanofibers

Cellulose nanofiber is the world’s most advanced biomass material. Most importantly, it is biodegradable. In this work, nanofibers were obtained from pineapple leaves, a large solid waste in Colombia, using a combined extraction method (chemical procedures and ultrasound). The native fibers were bleached, hydrolyzed, treated with ultrasound, and characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), infrared analysis (FTIR), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). As a comparison, a commercial microcrystalline cellulose sample was analyzed, which demonstrated the efficiency of cellulose extraction. The nanofibers had a diameter and a length of 18 nm and 237 nm, respectively, with a maximum degradation temperature of 306 °C. The analysis showed the efficiency of acid treatment combined with ultrasound to obtain nanofibers and confirmed that pineapple residues can be valorized by this method. These results indicate that lignocellulosic matrices from pineapple leaves have potential application for obtaining polymeric-type composite materials. Due to their morphology and characteristic physical properties, the cellulose nanofibers obtained in this work could be a promising material for use in a wealth of fields and applications such as filter material, high gas barrier packaging material, electronic devices, foods, medicine, construction, cosmetics, pharmacy, and health care, among others.

Effect of Isolation Method on Characteristics of Microcrystalline Cellulose from Brown Seaweed Sargassum vulgare

Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) has been reported to be purely derived from depolymerized cellulose which forms crystals. Therefore, this study aims to determine the characteristics of MCC samples which were in form of powder and alginate residues of Sargassum vulgare, hydrolyzed with acid and enzymes. The observed characteristics included yield, water content, ash content, pH, solubility, functional groups, and crystallinity index. Furthermore, the results showed that the MCC from acid-hydrolyzed seaweed powder and alginate residue, as well as enzymatically hydrolyzed seaweed powder and alginate residue each, had a yield of 3.83±2.74%, 5.66±1.52%, 10.03±2.58%, and 17.17±3.50%, crystallinity index of 91.37%, 80.26%, 84.67%, and 81.90%, water content of 4.92±1.85%, 4.92±1.11%, 3.88±2.01%, and 3.58±0.40%, ash content of 13.88±0.12%, 3.49±0.13%, 9.86±0.17%, and 7.43±0.09%, pH of 5.13±0.38, 5±0.1; 5.7±0.17, and 5.97±0.06, and solubility of 22.82±1.20%, 23.73±1.09%, 19.12±3.55%, and 21.10±1.48%, respectively. The functional group analysis showed that there were similarities with the standard Avicel PH101. Also, water content and pH meet the requirements according to the Handbook of Pharmaceutical Excipients, while solubility and ash content does not meet these requirements. However, the results of enzymatic hydrolysis were better than acid hydrolysis, and samples from alginate residues had better results than seaweed powder. Considering these results, the best MCC was obtained from enzymatically hydrolyzed alginate residue with a yield, water content, ash content, pH, solubility, and crystallinity index of 17.17±3.50%, 3.58±0.40, 7.43±0.09, 5.97±0.06, 21.10±1.48, and 81.90%.

A Fabrication and modification of a microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) prepared from cotton yarn

Cotton fibers were used to prepare the microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) by hydrolysis in acidic H2SO4 medium at different concentrations and heating. The prepared MCC sample was further grafted with maleic anhydride (MA) as an eco-friendly compatibilizer. Physicochemical properties of the fabricated materials were analyzed in comparison with those of the commercial Merck MCC one. The samples were subjected to infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) to confirm the purity of cellulose structure and the presence of MA grafted on MCC chains. The size distribution curve analysis showed that the MCC sample prepared under optimal conditions gave the same distribution as the commercial one, and the grafted sample gave a larger average size due to the aggregation. The X-ray spectroscopy (XRD) showed that the crystal structure was preserved through the modulation processes. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was carried out to compare the heat resistance of the samples. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) indicated that the prepared samples had similar morphology with Merck’s MCC.

Potentials of microcrystalline cellulose prepared from wood dusts wastes of Ficus Platyphyla, Planatus Occidentalis and Gmelina Aborea

This research aims to prepare microcrystalline cellulose (MCCs) from native cellulosic wastes in order to find potential applications for each of the tree species. The physico-chemical characteristics of the MCCs were studied using physical and spectroscopic techniques. Acid hydrolysis in 2M HCl was used for the preparation of microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) obtained from agricultural waste sample, Gmelina aborea (GA) Ficus platyphyla (FP) and Planatus occidentalis (PO) wood dust. The MCCs obtained were off-white and powdery in appearance. The yield of MCCs were 67.55% for Ficus platyphyla, 77.00% Planatus occidentalis and 80% for Gmelina Aborea (GA). The functional groups in the MCC samples were confirmed by the Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopic method with characteristic absorption bands of ;OH stretching at 3416 cm-1; C-H stretching at 2918 cm-1; -OH bending at1377 cm-1;, 1159 cm-1; and C-O-C pyranose ring skeletal vibrations at 1026-1033 cm-1, with crystallinity absorption bands showing up at 1432 and 850 cm-1 respectively. The thermal stabilities were determined from Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) and showed that the MCC samples are thermally stable (50% weight loss at 450OC or PO, 50% weight loss 470OC for FP and 50% weight loss at 590OC for GA). The characteristic morphological features were established by scanning electron micrograph (SEM) and the crystallinity of the microcrystalline cellulose were further confirmed using the X-Ray Diffraction (X-RD) technique which showed three main reflections at 2?=14.70, 22.09 and 34.24, this therefore indicates microcrystalline cellulose were cellulose I type and that acid pretreatment did not affect the structure of the MCC. The crystallinity index values were 69.4, 68.7 and 79.6 for FP, PO and GM MCCs and respectively. The Samples were tested for pH, Moisture content, Hydration and swelling capacities as well. These results showed that the wood dusts form the tree species are good potential sources of high-grade cellulose which can serve as useful starting materials for further processing and applications.

Отбелка микрокристаллической целлюлозы, полученной методом газофазного гидролиза

One of the main consumers of microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) is the pharmaceutical industry, where MCC is used as a binder and filler in direct compression of tablets. MCC is produced by acidic hydrolysis of cellulose, which usually results in a decrease in whiteness. This is due to the destruction of sugars formed during hydrolysis and the subsequent formation of colored products. The composition and properties of these products depend on the method of hydrolysis, acid concentration, temperature, and process duration. One of the most promising methods for producing MCC is gas-phase hydrolysis of cellulose with hydrogen chloride gas-air mixtures. The method has a high rate of hydrolysis, low reagent and energy consumption. The requirements of the pharmaceutical industry determine the need to produce MCC with high whiteness. The research purpose is to select bleaching modes for MCC using sodium hypochlorite and hydrogen peroxide as bleaching agents. MCC produced by gas-phase hydrolysis of bleached wood pulp was used during the study. The whiteness and intensity of the yellow tint of MCC in the bleaching process were determined by digital colorimetry on a flatbed scanner. The paper shows that sodium hypochlorite and hydrogen peroxide allow achieving the whiteness not less than 90 % and the intensity of the yellow tint not more than 3 standard units. High-quality bleaching can be carried out even for MCC samples with an initial whiteness of about 40 %. The most effective bleaching agent is sodium hypochlorite when the pH of the bleaching solution is 2–3. Hydrogen peroxide also provides high whiteness of MCC at pH of 10–11. However, the consumption of active oxygen (AO) for bleaching is more than three times higher in comparison with the consumption of active chlorine (ACh). It was found that the dyes of MCC produced by gas-phase hydrolysis consist of two chromophore groups that decolorize at different rates. The easily oxidized group of components makes up about 90 % of the total amount of dyes, and the resistant to oxidation components make up about 10 % and determine the intensity of the yellow tint of MCC. The modes of bleaching MCC with sodium hypochlorite and hydrogen peroxide to product samples with whiteness comparable to that of imported samples were determined. For citation: Sizov A.I., Pimenov S.D., Stroiteleva A.D., Stroiteleva K.D. Bleaching of Microcrystalline Cellulose Produced by Gas-Phase Hydrolysis. Lesnoy Zhurnal [Russian Forestry Journal], 2021, no. 6, pp. 173–183. DOI: 10.37482/0536-1036-2021-6-173-183

Preparation and Characterization of Cellulose and Microcrystalline Cellulose from Sugarcane Bagasse and Assessment of the Microcrystalline Cellulose as a Directly Compressible Excipient

Cellulose, the most abundant biomass material in nature finds wide applications in the pharmaceutical industry. Sugarcane bagasse (SCB) is one of the main agricultural lignocellulose byproducts. The objective of this study was to prepare and characterize native and microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) from SCB and evaluate the MCC as a directly compressible pharmaceutical excipient. Cellulose was extracted from SCB by chlorine-free methods with or without dewaxing. MCC was prepared from the cellulose by hydrolysis using hydrochloric acid, and subsequently oven-dried (OD) or spray-dried (SD). The as-obtained cellulose and MCC were characterized in terms of yield, degree of polymerization (DP), chemical functionality, crystallinity, morphology and thermal stability. The chemical composition, particle size, densities and direct compressibility of MCCs were also determined. Cellulose yields on a dry weight basis were found to be 42.8 ± 1.10% and 43.5 ± 0.5% from non-dewaxed and dewaxed SCB, respectively. Dewaxed SCB cellulose (DSCBC) provided higher yield of MCC (DSCB-MCCOD, 83 ± 0.74%) than non-dewaxed SCB cellulose (SCBC) (SCB-MCCOD; 78 ± 1.07%). The DP of SCBC and DSCBC were 580.56 and 592.75, respectively, while the DP of MCC ranged from 230.10 - 251.40. The FTIR spectra of both cellulose and MCC were similar with that of Avicel PH-101. The degree of crystallinity of the dewaxed cellulose (77.34%) and MCCOD (79.56%) and MCC-SD (81.87%) were higher than non-dewaxed cellulose (74.50%) and MCC-OD (78.11%) and MCC-SD (79.62%). Scanning electron micrographs (SEM) showed a fibrous structure for DSCBC and rod-shaped for DSCB-MCC. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) revealed dewaxed products exhibited better thermal stability than non-dewaxed products. All MCC samples exhibited monomodal normal particle size distributions. The Hausner ratio and Carr’s index of DSCB-MCCOD and Avicel PH-101 were not significantly different (p < 0.05) indicating similar flow property and compressibility of the materials, respectively. Also, plain tablets prepared from SCB-MCC showed reasonably high crushing strengths (MCC-SD > MCC-OD), although tablets of Avicel PH-101 showed the highest crushing strengths. Thus, SCB could be an alternative source of cellulose and MCC for pharmaceutical applications.

Terahertz time-domain spectroscopy as a novel tool for crystallographic analysis in cellulose: the potentiality of being a new standard for evaluating crystallinity

Given that terahertz (THz) radiation responds to intermolecular forces such as hydrogen bonds, THz time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS) has expanded possibilities in cellulose research. In this study, THz-TDS was used to investigate the crystallinity of three types of cellulose-based materials. Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) and wood were ball milled at different times, and pseudo-wood was a mixture of MCC and lignin of different mass fractions. All the samples showed peaks at 3.04 THz in the THz mass absorption coefficient spectra. Further, the spectra from 2.79 THz to 3.32 THz were cut out and detrended by subtraction from a baseline. The integrated intensity of the detrended spectra showed a correlation with the mass fraction of lignin of the pseudo-wood samples, and ball milling time of the MCC and wood samples. The correlation was similar with the crystallinity index calculated from X-ray powder diffraction. Moreover, the original wood sample without ball milling had an integrated intensity that was about 30% that of the original MCC sample, matching with the cellulose concentration of the wood (about 30% to 40%). We normalized the integrated intensity of 2.79 THz to 3.32 THz into 1 to 0 by a min–max algorithm and proposed a new “index” for evaluating crystallinity.

Physico-chemical properties of flax microcrystalline cellulose

Mechanical activation is a simple, fast, cost-effective green technology that has been used for the upgrading and modification of microcrystalline cellulose (MCC). However, there is no information on the effect of short-term grinding on its physicochemical properties, as it is widely used for obtaining MCC powder or smaller particle with a size below 50 µm. Thus, the aim of our work was the investigation of physico-chemical properties of the flax unground and short-term ground MCC. In that study MCC was derived from air-dry flax in the medium ‘‘acetic acid–hydrogen peroxide–water’’ in the presence of 2 wt% sulfuric acid catalyst and then in the dry state it was ground in the laboratory mill for 1, 2 and 5 min. The morphology and composition of mechanically unground and ground MCC samples were analysed by different methods: XRD, XRF, FTIR-ATR, AFM, TGA and DSC. According to the XRD patterns of MCC samples, mechanical activation did not change the crystalline form of cellulose, but obviously, it destroyed the crystal structure of ground MCC, resulting in the increase of amorphization and the decrease of crystallinity index (from 86.2 to 78.2%). The FT-IR spectra also showed that the band corresponded to symmetric CH2 bendings at 1435–1429 cm−1, known as the crystallinity band, decreased with MCC samples grinding. AFM indicated that relief of the surface of original MCC changed by mechanical grinding (from the relief with large and small aggregates to the relief consisted of long-chain cellulose molecules parallel layers).

Physicochemical Properties and Thermal Stability of Microcrystalline Cellulose Isolated from Esparto Grass Using Different Delignification Approaches

Esparto grass, known as alfa, is a renewable biomass widely distributed in southern and western Mediterranean basin. The present work focused on the isolation of pure cellulose from alfa stems, via different approaches, i.e., acidified sodium chlorite (NaClO2), totally chlorine free (TCF) or their combination, followed by the preparation of microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) using acid hydrolysis method. The obtained samples were characterized using infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), thermogravimetry (TGA) and differential scanning calorimeter (DSC). The FTIR spectroscopy exhibited the removal of lignin and hemicellulose after the delignification and alkaline treatments. The XRD data showed that all of the MCCs have higher crystallinity indexes (Alfa-MCC 73–82%) and belong to cellulose I type. From SEM images, it is clear that the different MCC particles presented rough surface and micro-sized particles. The DSC/TGA analyses revealed that MCC samples present better thermal stability than their respective cellulose ones, with higher temperature of decomposition (more than 350 °C). Moreover, the use of a combined process yields to MCC with higher crystallinity and better thermal stability. Consequently, based on these findings, the delignification with combined method can be considered as a promising approach to extract MCC from alfa fibers with outstanding features.

Effect of the Delignification Process on the Physicochemical Properties and Thermal Stability of Microcrystalline Cellulose Extracted from Date Palm Fronds

In this study, pure cellulose was isolated from Algerian date palm fronds (DPF) using three different delignification processes (acidified NaClO2, totally chlorine free (TCF) and their combination). Then, microcrystalline cellulose (MCCs) particles have been successfully produced via direct acid hydrolysis of the different celluloses. All samples were characterized using infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), thermogravimetry (TGA) and differential scanning calorimeter (DSC). From the FTIR analysis, most of hemicellulose and lignin were effectively removed throughout the extraction processes. The XRD spectra revealed that all MCCs belong to cellulose I type, and showed a highly crystallinity index than that of pure celluloses. According to DSC and TGA/DTG analyses, the MCC samples presented a higher decomposition temperature. The obtained results showed that the extracted MCC samples exhibited similar properties than those of commercial MCC. Furthermore, the employment of a combined process allowed obtaining MCC with higher crystallinity and better thermal stability. Thus, according to these results, date palm fronds can be considered as a potential low-cost material for MCC production and the combined process is promising to isolate high purity MCC from cellulosic substrate.

Valorization of Colombian fique (Furcraea bedinghausii) for production of cellulose nanofibers and its application in hydrogels

Cellulose nanofibers were obtained from the Colombian fique (Furcraea bedinghausii) and Acrylic hydrogels (H) and reinforced acrylic hydrogels with fique nanofibres (HRFN) were synthesized, using the solution polymerization method. The extraction was carried out using a combined extraction method (chemical procedures and ultrasound radiation). The raw material (NAT-F), bleached fibers (B-F), hydrolyzed fibers and fibers treated with ultrasound (US-F) were characterized by infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and thermal stability analysis; also, in order to have a comparison criterion, a commercial microcrystalline cellulose sample (CC) was analyzed, which demonstrated the extraction of fique cellulose. The surface morphology of the NAT-F and the B-F was determined by scanning electron microscopy and the average particle size of the nanofibers was made through transmission electron microscopy. In H y HRFN the strain percent and compression resistance (Rc) were measured. The fique nanofibers showed diameter and length averages of 25.2 ± 6.2 nm and 483.8 ± 283.2 nm respectively. Maximum degradation temperature was 317 °C. HRFN presented higher compression resistance (16.39 ± 4.30 kPa) and this resistance was 2.5 greater than the resistance of H (6.49 ± 2.48 kPa). The results indicate that fique lignocellulosic matrix has potential application for obtaining polymeric type composite materials.

Tableting properties of microcrystalline cellulose obtained from wheat straw measured with a single punch bench top tablet press

The objective of this work was to study the relation between the manufacturing conditions of microcrystalline cellulose (MCC), its physicochemical properties and its tableting behavior. Two different preparation procedures were used to produce MCC from wheat straw, utilizing an acid hydrolysis method, either using only sulfuric acid or combination of sulfuric and hydrochloric acid. The tableting behavior of obtained MCC samples and mixtures of MCC with ibuprofen was studied using a dynamic powder compaction analyzer. It was observed that some of the obtained MCC samples showed better flowing properties than commercially available Vivapur® PH101 and also very high values of tensile strength, solid fraction and elastic recovery. This can be linked with its good compaction behavior, but on the other hand it can cause problems with the disintegration of the tablets. In mixtures with ibuprofen, MCC samples showed lower values of tensile strength, while on the other hand elastic recovery did not seem to be much affected, still exhibiting very high values. According to the obtained results, it can be concluded that MCC obtained from the agricultural waste could have satisfactory properties for tablet preparation by the direct compression method. Further studies are needed to optimize process conditions in order to achieve better physicochemical characteristics, especially in terms of elastic recovery.

OBTAINING MICROCRYSTALLINE CELLULOSE FROM MELON CROPS AND STUDYING ITS STRUCTURE

The aim of the study was to obtain microcrystalline cellulose from gourds. Cellulose was isolated from the stems of watermelon and pumpkin by acid and alkaline heat treatment. Microcrystalline cellulose was obtained from cellulose by hydrolysis. Cellulose was hydrolyzed in a mixture of sulfuric acid and hydrogen peroxide. The optical parameters of the microcrystalline cellulose sample, ash content, bulk density, water swelling, and moisture sorption were determined. The structural features of the obtained microcrystalline cellulose were studied by IR spectroscopy. The functional groups present under various conditions for the production of microcrystalline cellulose were determined. The influence of the duration of cellulose treatment on the degree of ordering of microcrystalline cellulose was established.

Aerobic biodegradation in freshwater and marine environments of textile microfibers generated in clothes laundering: Effects of cellulose and polyester-based microfibers on the microbiome

The aerobic biodegradation of common textiles that shed microfibers during laundering was evaluated under the action of microbes found in the environment, such as lake and seawater, and activated sludge at a low concentration from a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). Under these conditions, the biodegradation potential was the same in all the experiments: Microcrystalline Cellulose (MCC) > Cotton > Rayon > Polyester/Cotton ≫ Polyester. Nevertheless, for cotton and rayon yarns, >70% biodegradation was achieved with activated sludge at low concentration and lake water, whereas in seawater, about 50% degradation was reached. Polyester did not appreciably degrade. The biodegradation results herein indicate potential not absolutes in nature. The bacterial diversity analyses in the different biodegradation inoculums show that there are distinct bacterial communities related to the assimilation and mineralization of complex carbohydrates that were promoted with the cellulosic MCC, cotton, and rayon samples different than the polyester sample.

Microcrystalline cellulose production from sugarcane bagasse: Sustainable process development and life cycle assessment

Sugarcane bagasse (SCB), a major and abundantly available byproduct of sugarcane processing industries is presently being used for energy generation. However, its rich resource content makes it a perfect feedstock for the production of various value-added products. In this communication, Microcrystalline Cellulose (MCC), a partially depolymerized cellulose is in vogue due to its versatile physical properties which holds substantial applications in the pharmaceutical industries, was produced from the surplus available SCB. Experiments were designed to optimize MCC production from SCB using three different chemical methods namely MCC1, MCC2 and MCC3 by varying the reaction conditions. Relatively higher yield of cellulose (0.34 g/g SCB) and MCC (0.32 g/g SCB) were observed with MCC2 method, followed by MCC3 (cellulose 0.32 g/g SCB; MCC 0.31 g/g SCB) and MCC1 (cellulose 0.30 g/g SCB; MCC 0.28 g/g SCB). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) showed good correlation with commercial grade MCC for the presence of characteristic functional groups. X-ray diffractograms (XRD) showed 79.8%, 84.1% and 87.4% crystallinity for MCC1, MCC2 and MCC3, respectively. The morphological analysis of all the three MCC samples correlated well with the standard MCC. EcoScale analysis awarded scores greater than 75 for the three MCC methods, in which MCC2 scored the maximum (84). Life cycle analysis depicted the impacts of MCC production methods on various environmental impact categories, where MCC3 method showed relatively less environmental impact in terms of global warming (27% less than MCC2). MCC3 further characterized with X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy, Thermogravimetry analysis (TGA), Differential thermal analysis (DTA) and Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) depicted its characteristic properties. Additionally, the sustainability analysis functioned as a valuable tool to assess the environmental impact of the process, prior to scaling up.

Estimating Crystality Index of Microcrystalline Cellulose Using Diffraction Methods

Microcrystalline cellulose samples are studied by X-ray diffraction. The technique of the diffraction experiment allows achieving higher accuracy and reliability when interpreting the data obtained for plant materials. The determined crystallinity indices of cellulose are compared using several X-ray techniques.