Microanalytic Coding Research Articles

Children and parents’ physiological arousal and emotions during shared and independent e-book reading: A preliminary study

Although e-books allow young children to read independently, children could be missing out on opportunities to develop positive emotional associations with reading. The current study explored whether there are differences in emotions and physiological arousal when parents and children read traditional books or e-books together or when children listen to e-books alone. Seventy-four 4-year-old children were randomly assigned to read the same storybook in one of three conditions: reading a traditional book with parent, reading an e-book with parent, or listening to an e-book independently. Parents and children wore Electrodermal Activity (EDA) sensors to measure skin conductivity, an index of sympathetic arousal. Reading interactions were videotaped and coded with a microanalytic coding system to capture children’s and parents’ emotional expressions. Children had more peaks in arousal and were coded as happier and more interested when reading the e-book and the traditional book with their parents than when listening to the e-book alone. Neither children nor parents demonstrated differences in arousal or emotional expressions between the e-book and the traditional book conditions. These findings suggest that the format of the book is not as crucial as reading with a parent and imply that children can have positive experiences around e-books. E-books, when used with an adult, can prompt the same types of positive interactions as traditional books.

Transitioning to telehealth due to COVID-19: Maintaining model fidelity in a home visiting program for parents of vulnerable infants.

Maintaining treatment fidelity when implementing evidence‐based interventions is a significant challenge. The inability to deliver in‐person services due to the COVID‐19 pandemic critically challenged the foundation of implementation fidelity for home visiting programs across the globe. The Attachment and Biobehavioral Catch‐Up (ABC) program is an evidence‐based home visiting intervention designed to increase sensitivity in parents of infants who have experienced early adversity. ABC's community effectiveness is due to rigorous fidelity monitoring and supervision. Fidelity is measured by microanalytic coding of parenting opportunities and “in‐the‐moment” commenting, the active ingredient of ABC. In this study, we examined intervention fidelity among parent coaches implementing ABC through telehealth. Random 5‐min clips from 510 telehealth ABC session videos conducted by 91 parent coaches at 48 agencies were coded for their frequency and quality of in‐the‐moment comments. On average, parent coaches were able to exceed in‐person commenting fidelity standards when implementing ABC through the telehealth format. The active fidelity monitoring and supervision inherent to ABC's dissemination afforded a smooth transition to implementing ABC through telehealth while adhering to fidelity standards. Procedural and clinical challenges to telehealth implementation are discussed, along with future directions for telehealth program effectiveness.

An Evaluation of the Quality of Parent-Child Interactions in Vulnerable Families That Are Followed by Child Protective Services: A Latent Profile Analysis.

In the current study, an observational procedure, recorded in video, was used to evaluate the quality of parent-child interactions in a sample of vulnerable Portuguese families (n = 47) with school-aged children followed by Child Protective Services (CPS). The study sought to explore if the families presented different profiles of parent-child interaction quality, and to characterize such profiles in terms of discrete behaviors observed, parenting outcome variables, and families’ sociodemographic and CPS referral characteristics. The parent-child dyads took part in a 15 minutes structured task and parents completed self-report measures (affection, parenting behaviors, and stress). Discrete behaviors of parents and children during interactions were coded with a micro-analytic coding procedure. The global dimensions of the parents’ interactions were coded with a global rating system. A latent profile analysis, estimated with global dimensions, identified two subgroups, one subgroup in which parents displayed higher quality interactions (n = 12), and another subgroup in which parents displayed lower quality interactions (n = 35). Further analyses comparing the subgroups determined that the higher quality subgroup presented more positive behaviors, and the lower quality subgroup presented more negative behaviors during the interactions. No further differences or associations were found regarding the parenting outcome variables, and the families’ sociodemographic and CPS referral characteristics. The findings are in line with prior studies, suggesting that vulnerable families may frequently present depleted parent-child interactions. However, given the small sample size, future studies should replicate the described procedures and analyses in larger sample sizes.

Sculpting Culture: Early Maternal Responsiveness and Child Emotion Regulation – A UK-Italy Comparison

Mother-infant interactions, including culturally specific features, have been found to predict child socio-emotional development (e.g., social communication and emotion regulation (ER)). However, research is lacking on the specific processes involved. We used a cross-cultural, longitudinal design, and a microanalytic coding approach to address this issue. Fifty-two mother-infant dyads were recruited from the UK ( N = 21) and Italy ( N = 31), representing Northern European and Mediterranean cultures, respectively. While these cultures share core features of parent-child relationships, their values about emotional expressiveness differ. We observed face-to-face mother-infant interactions at 2 months (T1), and coded infant socio-emotional behavior and maternal responses. Children were seen again at 2 years (T2), when their ER in the face of frustration, using the Barrier Task, was assessed, and the occurrence of different “mature” strategies (communicative and autonomous) coded. Results revealed common features of interactions at T1 (infant socio-emotional expressions, and maternal positive responses), but also cultural variation in the frequency of different infant cues (more pre-speech in UK infants, more smiles in Italians), and of maternal responses to them. While greater overall maternal responsiveness at T1 predicted more mature ER in general at T2, cultural differences in early responsiveness to specific infant behaviors predicted later group differences in children’s use of particular ER strategies, with UK children using more communicative strategies, and Italians more autonomous. Findings indicate that positive maternal behaviors that are common across cultures (e.g., responsiveness) promote overall successful child emotion regulation, while culturally specific features of interactions are associated with how child socio-emotional outcomes are expressed.

The Impact of Affect Phobia Therapy (APT) on Alcohol Use Disorders (AUD)—Evaluating Three Case Studies

In this commentary on the important cases of "Carey," "Michelle," and "Mary" conducted by Dr. My Frankl (Frankl, Wennberg, Berggraf, & Philips, 2020), I begin with some general considerations on the importance of assessment and case formulation in Affect Phobia Therapy (APT) and how these considerations impact on the experiential interventions of APT. Next I specifically review Frankl’s three case studies, with a focus on: how Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD) is embedded in close family relationships; the connection between AUD and affect regulation; the role of feelings of shame in AUD; individualizing and adjusting APT treatment based on feedback from ongoing therapy; Frankl’s activation of transference feelings; the issue of sobriety before treatment; activating inhibitory affects and maladaptive defenses; Frankl’s missing some moments of connection; and an example of Frankl’s conducting the two-chair technique skillfully and successfully. I end with a proposal for enhancing Frankl’s narrative analysis with two methodologies from APT: the "Ten-Session Summary Form," and the micro-analytic coding approach of the "Achievement of Therapeutic Objectives Scales" (ATOS).

How toddlers think with their hands: social and private gestures as evidence of cognitive self-regulation in guided play with objects

ABSTRACTThe role of language as a tool to support the self-regulation has been widely studied, yet there is little evidence on the role of prelinguistic communication in the early development of self-regulation. To address this gap, we developed behavioural indicators of preverbal cognitive self-regulation, and described how can parents support it through guided play. We observed 16 children at 14, 16 and 18 months interacting with two complex toys, either independently or with a parent. A microanalytic coding captured a total of 721 gestures, of which 473 were classed as self-regulatory. Children used gestures to support self-regulation in planning monitoring, control, and evaluation. Analysis of parental mediation revealed a relationship between supporting autonomy, providing challenge, responsiveness, effective communication, children’s competence with objects, and self-regulatory gestures. We produced reliable indicators of self-regulation through gestures and characterized effective parental mediation, thus making explicit key social mechanisms to foster self-regulation in preverbal development.

Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Low-Income Adolescents Under Stress.

Gender roles in mainstream U.S. culture suggest that girls express more happiness, sadness, anxiety, and shame/embarrassment than boys, while boys express more anger and externalizing emotions, such as contempt. However, gender roles and emotion expression may be different in low-income and ethnically diverse families, as children and parents are often faced with greater environmental stressors and may have different gender expectations. This study examined gender differences in emotion expression in low-income adolescents, an understudied population. One hundred and seventy nine adolescents (aged 14-17) participated in the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST). Trained coders rated adolescents' expressions of happiness, sadness, anxiety, shame/embarrassment, anger, and contempt during the TSST using a micro-analytic coding system. Analyses showed that, consistent with gender roles, girls expressed higher levels of happiness and shame than boys; however, contrary to traditional gender roles, girls showed higher levels of contempt than boys. Also, in contrast to cultural stereotypes, there were no differences in anger between boys and girls. Findings suggest gender-role inconsistent displays of externalizing emotions in low-income adolescents under acute stress, and may reflect different emotion socialization experiences in this group.

Microanalytic coding versus global rating of maternal parenting behaviour

This study examined the relationship between microanalytic coding and global rating systems when coding maternal parenting behaviour in two contexts. Observational data from 55 mother–child interactions with two- to four-year-old children, in either a mealtime (clinic; N = 20 or control; N = 20) or a playtime context (community; N = 15), were coded via both microanalytic and global systems. Results from the microanalytic coding and global rating demonstrated similar results, with both scales showing adequate psychometric properties. No difference was found in the sensitivity of the two systems in the control sample; however, the global method demonstrated more sensitivity in measuring behaviour in the playtime context. This finding may indicate that global ratings are more sensitive in a population with high base rates of positivity or in a playtime context. This study highlights the incongruence of different measurement methods and emphasises the importance of considering coding methodology for different types of populations.

Interactive Behaviors and Attachment Patterns in the Strange Situation Procedure: A Validation of the Ainsworth Model

The Strange Situation Procedure (SSP; Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, Wall, 1978) is the most widely used procedure to assess attachment in early childhood (Bowlby, 1969). In the original text by Ainsworth et al. (1978), the video coding is carried out by means of a two-step procedure: in the first part, coders apply a series of observational scales with graduated scores on a Likert scale, whereas during the second part, a descriptive category of attachment is assigned, which somehow “summarizes” the general quality of the child’s behaviour, already assessed by means of scales. Obviously, the system validation study highlights a discriminant correspondence between the scores which are assigned through the scales and the descriptive category which is assigned in the end. The aim of the present study was to test this specific aspect of the Strange Situation coding procedure: in order to do so, and similarly to what had been done in the original work in 1978, we compared the categorical attachment classification system with the ordinal one provided by the scales, which describe the child’s behaviors in the various procedure episodes. 76 12-month-old infants were observed in the Strange Situation Procedure in order to compare the classification of attachment by the global descriptive patterns with the Ainsworth’s microanalytic coding system (Interactive Behavior Scales). Results: Discriminant function analysis (MDFA) and classification weights confirm the discriminant functions of the interactive behavior to differentiate between patterns of attachment and attesting good validity of the methodology and the coding system.

Genre du bébé et trouble de la personnalité borderline maternel : quel impact sur l’interaction mère-bébé à 3 mois du postpartum ?

Background and aimThis research aims to study mother-infant interactions at 3months postpartum using the Still Face Face-to-Face Paradigm comparing two groups, mothers with borderline personality disorder and controls. We hypothesized that dyadic interactions with mothers afflicted with the disorder would be significantly different from those without psychopathology, and that these differences would vary according to infant gender. MethodsNineteen dyads of mothers with Borderline Personality Disorder and 41 with control mothers were filmed using the Still Face Paradigm. Behaviors of both partners were studied using microanalytic coding with the Maternal and Infant Regulation Scoring System. Results and conclusionOur analysis shows that both partners react to the stress induced by the Still Face episode (the paradigm is divided in three phases, 2minutes of spontaneous interaction face-to-face, 2minutes of maternal Still Face per se, and 2minutes of reuniting interactive play). Infants of mothers with Borderline Personality Disorder show less gaze focused on mother than their control counterparts; infant girls regulate themselves more than boys and mothers with psychopathology demonstrate more tactile stimulation of their infants (touch, tickle, etc.). Our research illustrates how different dyadic adaptive mechanisms exist according to maternal psychopathology and infant gender, and suggests that as early as 3months postpartum, infants are already trying to adapt to maternal functioning and dysfunctional interactions through self-regulatory mechanisms. This begs for further research exploring as precisely as possible interactive mechanisms both early in life and in longitudinal studies.

Comparative Network Analysis of Preterm vs. Full-Term Infant-Mother Interactions

Several studies have reported that interactions of mothers with preterm infants show differential characteristics compared to that of mothers with full-term infants. Interaction of preterm dyads is often reported as less harmonious. However, observations and explanations concerning the underlying mechanisms are inconsistent. In this work 30 preterm and 42 full-term mother-infant dyads were observed at one year of age. Free play interactions were videotaped and coded using a micro-analytic coding system. The video records were coded at one second resolution and studied by a novel approach using network analysis tools. The advantage of our approach is that it reveals the patterns of behavioral transitions in the interactions. We found that the most frequent behavioral transitions are the same in the two groups. However, we have identified several high and lower frequency transitions which occur significantly more often in the preterm or full-term group. Our analysis also suggests that the variability of behavioral transitions is significantly higher in the preterm group. This higher variability is mostly resulted from the diversity of transitions involving non-harmonious behaviors. We have identified a maladaptive pattern in the maternal behavior in the preterm group, involving intrusiveness and disengagement. Application of the approach reported in this paper to longitudinal data could elucidate whether these maladaptive maternal behavioral changes place the infant at risk for later emotional, cognitive and behavioral disturbance.

Mothers' depressive symptoms and children's facial emotions: Examining the depression–inhibition hypothesis

Vibrant expression of emotion is the principal means infants and young children use to elicit appropriate and timely caregiving, stimulation, and support. This study examined the depression-inhibition hypothesis: that declines in mothers' support as their depressive symptoms increase inhibit children's emotional communication. Ninety-four mothers and their 14- to 27-month-olds interacted in a university playroom. Based on microanalytic coding of discrete facial displays, results supported three components of the hypothesis. (a) As mothers' depressive symptoms increased, children displayed less facial emotion (more flat affect, less joy, less sadness, less negative). (b) Mothers' low emotional and behavioral support predicted children's low facial communication and mediated relations between mothers' depressive symptoms and children's infrequent emotion. (c) Children who were passive with mothers behaviorally expressed emotion infrequently. Children's passivity mediated relations between mothers' depressive symptoms and children's infrequent emotion displays. Contrary to modeling and contagion theories, mothers' facial displays did not mediate relations between their depressive symptoms and children's facial displays. Nor were the outcomes children experienced regulating their facial displays. Rather, findings suggest that, even when depressive symptoms are modest, young children inhibit emotion as mothers' depressive symptoms increase to withdraw from unresponsive mothers, which may adversely affect children's subsequent relationships and competencies.

Late-preterm birth, maternal symptomatology, and infant negativity

The present study examined infant negativity and maternal symptomatology by term status in a predominately low-income, rural sample of 132 infants (66 late-preterm) and their mothers. Late-preterm and term infants were group-matched by race, income, and maternal age. Maternal depression and anxiety symptoms were measured with the Brief Symptom Inventory 18 (BSI-18) when infants were 2 and 6 months of age. Also at 6 months, infant negativity was assessed by global observer ratings, maternal ratings, and microanalytic behavioral coding of fear and frustration. Results indicate that after controlling for infant age, late-preterm status predicted higher ratings of infant negativity by mothers, but not by global observers or microanalytic coding, despite a positive association in negativity across the three measures. Further, mothers of late-preterm infants reported more elevated and chronic co-morbid symptoms of depression and anxiety, which in turn, was related to concurrent maternal ratings of their infant's negativity. Mothers’ response to late-preterm birth and partiality in the assessment of their infant's temperament is discussed.

Social support, problem solving, and the longitudinal course of newlywed marriage.

Married couples (N = 172) were observed as newlyweds and observed again 1 year later while engaging in 2 problem-solving and 2 personal support discussions. Microanalytic coding of these conversations was used to examine associations between problem-solving and social support behaviors for 1 year and their relative contributions to 10-year trajectories of self-reported relationship satisfaction and dissolution. Results demonstrated that initially lower levels of positive support behaviors and higher levels of negative support behaviors predicted 1-year increases in negative emotion displayed during problem-solving conversations. Emotions coded from the initial problem-solving conversations did not predict 1-year changes in social support behaviors. Controlling for emotions displayed during problem-solving interactions eliminated or reduced associations between initial social support behaviors and (a) later levels of satisfaction and (b) relationship dissolution. These findings corroborate models that prioritize empathy, validation, and caring as key elements in the development of intimacy (e.g., Reis & Shaver, 1988) and suggest that deficits in these domains foreshadow deterioration in problem solving and conflict management. Implications for integrating support and problem solving in models of relationship change are outlined, as are implications for incorporating social support in education programs for developing relationships.

Mothers’ narratives regarding their child with autism predict maternal synchronous behavior during play

Mothers' synchronous playtime behaviors have been linked to language development in children with autism (Siller & Sigman, 2002, 2008). This study sought to explain individual differences in maternal synchrony in order to improve parent-training programs targeting communication skills in children with autism. Participants were 67 children with autism under the age of 7 and their biological mothers. Maternal cognitions were assessed using two narrative measures, the Insightfulness Assessment (Koren-Karie & Oppenheim, 1997) and the Reaction to Diagnosis Interview (Pianta & Marvin, 1992). Mean levels of maternal synchrony, measured with a micro-analytic coding system (Siller & Sigman, 2002, 2008), were compared between groups formed according to mothers' interview classifications. Variation in maternal synchrony was related to classification of the Insightfulness Assessment, but not the Reaction to Diagnosis Interview. Child characteristics were not related to interview classifications or ratings of maternal synchrony. Qualities of mothers' narratives about their child with autism and the relationship with the child are associated with variability in maternal synchronous behavior during play.

Preschool children and marital conflict: A constructive view

Effects of marital conflict on children are well documented, but few studies have examined the impact of constructive conflict. This paper examines scenarios of largely constructive marital conflict, and their relations with their preschool children behaviours, in naturalistic situations in the home. Participants were married couples and their preschool child, studied over three years (n = 33 at T1), with children aged about 2 years at the outset. Microanalytic observational coding of marital interactions and children's responses were conducted and contingency analyses were performed. Links were found between parents' relational control strategies and non-verbal affect and children's responses to parents' constructive conflicts. For example, parents' positive affect and children's interfering in conflict scenarios were associated. Children's interference in conflicts was associated with triadic relational sequences, regardless of parents' particular relational control strategies. Findings are discussed in terms of perspectives on understanding children's reactions to constructive conflicts in terms of broader marital and child systems.

The development of maternal touch across the first year of life

The developmental trajectories of specific forms of maternal touch during natural caregiving were examined across the first year in relation to the development of mother–infant reciprocal communication. One hundred and thirty-one mothers and infants in four groups aged 3, 6, 9, and 12 months were observed in a cross-sectional design at home during natural caregiving and mother–child play sessions. Microanalytic coding of the caregiving sessions considered nine forms of maternal touch, which were aggregated into three global touch categories: affectionate, stimulating, and instrumental. Play sessions were coded for maternal sensitivity and dyadic reciprocity. Maternal affectionate and stimulating touch decreased significantly during the second 6 months of life. In parallel, dyadic reciprocity increased in the second half year. Dyadic reciprocity was predicted by the frequency of affectionate touch but not by any other form of touch. Results contribute to specifying the role of touch as it evolves across the first year of life within the global mother–infant communication system.

Self‐Report and Observational Assessment of Couples' Conflict: The Concordance Between the Communication Patterns Questionnaire and the KPI Observation System

The purpose of the study is to provide a cross‐cultural replication of the correspondence between the Communication Patterns Questionnaire (CPQ) Constructive Communication Subscale and an observational measure of constructive communication. Eighty‐one couples in two German cities completed the CPQ, a self‐report measure of couples' conflictual communication, and participated in a 15‐minute, videotaped interaction in which they discussed a current problem. A microanalytic coding system, the Kategoriensystem fuer Partnerschaftliche Interaktion (KPI), was used to classify each unit of behavior in the videotaped interactions. Correlations were computed between subscales on the CPQ and summary categories on the KPI. The correlations were generally supportive of the CPQ as a measure of couples' communication. In particular, the Constructive Communication Subscale of the CPQ and a summary measure of constructiveness on the KPI were correlated at .51.

Defining and observing social signals in deaf and hearing infants.

Infant gaze, gestures, and affective expression have become generally accepted as indicators of the infant's efforts to initiate or resume interaction with a partner, particularly during moments when the mother may be temporarily unresponsive as shown experimentally in the maternal "Still-Face" situation. Previous studies comparing deaf and hearing infants using this paradigm have revealed diminished signalling by deaf infants with hearing mothers, when signals were defined by the typical indices mentioned above. This study compares results from both a microanalytic coding system (used with 59 dyads) and a more global examination of efforts by 20 deaf and 20 hearing infants to re-engage their deaf or hearing mothers. Emphasis is on the kinds of infant signals that often remain undocumented due to methodological constraints, but that may be recognized by the mother and elicit a delayed response from her when she is able to resume her normal interactive patterns. Results indicate that when these additional "signal" behaviors are considered (such as repetitive hand, arm, or foot movements, or behaviors previously prohibited by the mother), there are few overall differences in eliciting efforts by deaf and hearing infants.

Neurological Trauma and Family Functioning.

Griffin and Greene ("Social Interaction and Symptom Sequences," this issue) present evidence linking patterns of family interaction with the expression of disease symptoms, in this case orofacial bradykinesia in a patient with Parkinson's disease. They argue that symptom expression may be influenced by family interaction for many diseases or chronic conditions and advocate the use of behavioral observation and microanalytic coding of behavior sequences as a means of studying this linkage. They note that the success of this approach will depend on the temporal characteristics of symptom fluctuation and suggest that observational strategies will be primarily useful for studying symptoms that fluctuate across seconds or minutes rather than across days. What kinds of conditions might this include? Griffin and Greene mention three categories: (1) mental and emotional disorders; (2) chronic pain; (3) neurological conditions.