Microstructural Considerations Research Articles

A continuum damage mechanics model for fatigue degradation and failure of short fiber reinforced composites

The present study is concerned with the development and implementation of a continuum damage mechanics model describing the degradation and failure of short fiber reinforced composites subjected to static and fatigue loads. Towards a numerically efficient formulation, the model is defined entirely on the macroscopic scale, although being motivated by microstructural considerations. Based on experimental observations, an anisotropic linear elastic formulation is adopted as a base formulation. The elastic model is coupled with a damage formulation assuming that damage is driven by the approach of a state point in strain space to a Tsai-Hill type failure envelope. The model is implemented as a user defined subroutine into a finite element formulation. As a numerically highly efficient alternative, an enhanced Wöhler-Miner type post-processing procedure is proposed. Both numerical approaches are found in good agreement with experimental data obtained in coupon experiments as well as in experiments on specimens with more complex geometry and loading conditions.

A dislocation-density-based crystal plasticity model for FCC nanocrystalline metals incorporating thermally-activated depinning from grain boundaries

A novel dislocation-density-based crystal plasticity model for nanocrystalline face-centered cubic metals is developed based on the thermally-activated mechanism of dislocations depinning from grain boundaries. Dislocations nucleated from grain boundary dislocation sources are assumed to be the primary carriers of plasticity in the nanocrystals. The evolution of the dislocation density thereby involves a competition between the nucleation of dislocations from grain boundary defect structures, such as ledges, and the absorption of dislocations into the grain boundary via diffusion processes. This model facilitates the simulation of plastic deformation in nanocrystalline metals, with consideration of the initial microstructure resulting from a particular processing method, to be computed as a direct result of dislocation-mediated plasticity only. The exclusion of grain boundary-mediated plasticity mechanisms in the formulation of the crystal plasticity model allows for the exploration of the fundamental role dislocations play in nanocrystalline plasticity. The combined effect of average grain size, grain size distribution shape, and initial dislocation density on the mechanical performance and strain-rate sensitivity are explored with the model. Further, the influence of the grain boundary diffusivity on post-yielding strain-hardening behavior is investigated to discern the impact that the choice of processing route has on the resulting deformation response of the material.

Theoretical and Experimental Performance Characterization of Battery Anodes Comprised of Coal Derived Graphite

As demand for energy storage expands, securing reliable supply-chains for raw battery materials is critical in mitigating the threats of delayed manufacturing and inflated manufacturing costs. These issues have pushed researchers and industry to consider alternative sources for traditional lithium-ion battery materials, such as graphite. Commonly available sources of graphite for Li-ion anodes include natural graphite and petroleum coke derived synthetic graphite. While many carbon sources have been studied, most require complicated processing and result in sub-par graphite anode materials. This talk highlights raw coal and coal derived materials as promising graphite sources thanks to their abundance of sp2 hybridized carbon, resulting in simpler processing, and low material costs.We show that coal derived graphite can be implemented as a lithium-ion anode, however, many chemical, microstructural, and morphological considerations are necessary to compare with commercial graphite performance. We will experimentally compare the morphology at the microstructure for graphite from various carbon sources, and then apply the virtual microstructure analysis method as detailed by Lopata et al to quantify potential differences between the anode microstructures with respect to effective active material particle size (diffusion length calculation), the electrochemical surface area, and the tortuosity of the liquid phase domain. These calculations from representative 3D microstructures can then be extended to a porous electrode model as detailed in Garrick et al to probe the impact in ionic, kinetic, and ohmic losses in the system.References Joseph S. Lopata et al 2023 J. Electrochem. Soc. 170 020530Taylor R. Garrick et al 2021 J. Electrochem. Soc. 168 010530

Development of Graphite Anodes from Coal Derived Carbon

As demand for energy storage expands, securing reliable supply-chains for raw battery materials is critical in mitigating the threats of delayed manufacturing and inflated manufacturing costs. These issues have pushed researchers and industry to consider alternative sources for traditional lithium-ion battery materials, such as graphite. Commonly available sources of graphite for Li-ion anodes include natural graphite and petroleum coke derived synthetic graphite. While many carbon sources have been studied, most require complicated processing and result in sub-par graphite anode materials. This talk highlights raw coal and coal derived materials as promising graphite sources thanks to their abundance of sp2 hybridized carbon, resulting in simpler processing, and low material costs.We show that coal derived graphite can be implemented as a lithium-ion anode, however, many chemical, microstructural, and morphological considerations are necessary to compare with commercial graphite performance. Key topics of this talk include i) the processing steps necessary for achieving high-performing coal-derived graphite, ii) chemical, microstructural, and morphological graphite characterization, and iii) comparative performance of coal-derived graphites and commercial graphite as lithium-ion anodes. Characterization of the anodes’ performance includes gravimetric capacity, initial capacity loss, coulombic efficiency, internal resistance, intercalation energetics, and pseudo-open circuit potential characterization. Emphasis is placed on the careful consideration and effects of fundamental anode properties (particle size, surface area, etc.) because they are crucial in determining the viability of alternative graphite sources for lithium-ion battery anodes.

Electrode microstructure design based on a CA-FD hybrid computation framework to alleviate the concentration polarization

The fast charging capability of lithium-ion batteries is considered as a critical requirement for the widespread replacement of fuel vehicles by electric ones. The high current applied in the fast charging process always causes concentration polarization due to the velocity difference between ionic diffusion and electron transport, which could lead to a low charging efficiency. The ionic diffusion velocities in both solid phase and liquid phase are strongly related to the microstructure of electrode particles. Based on the understanding of the reaction-diffusion mechanism, numerical simulation method is feasible to investigate the effect of microstructure on charging performance more economically. However, a two-dimensional model with the consideration of electrode microstructure consists of a set of highly coupled partial differential equations (PDEs), which is hard to be solved and inefficient with the irregular solid-liquid boundaries. Compared with PDEs, cellular automata (CA) is focused on the interaction between the adjacent discrete elements rather than solving the continuous variables across the whole region. According to this characteristic, mass transfer with complex solid-liquid boundaries can be simulated more conveniently by CA, but on the other hand, the restriction of applied current on the total reaction flux is hard to be considered in the CA model. Therefore, the diffusion part and the reaction part are processed by CA and finite difference (FD) method respectively. A CA-FD hybrid computation framework is proposed to consider the effect of microstructure on charging performances and visualize the concentration evolution inside the electrode particles. Based on this framework, the electrodes with uniform structure, porosity-layered structure and particle size-layered structure are constructed and applied in the charging simulations. According to the simulation results, the layered structures are beneficial for alleviating the concentration polarization in batteries, so that the charging efficiency of the electrodes can be improved without energy density loss by adopting these non-uniform structures in certain scenarios.

Roughness effect of an acoustic metasurface on supersonic boundary layer transition

Roughness is a key property of an acoustic metasurface in determining the laminar-to-turbulent transition of a supersonic boundary layer, and the investigation of its effects requires consideration of the real microstructures inside the metasurface without any simplification. This work experimentally studies the transition behavior of the boundary layers over four different metasurfaces in a supersonic low-noise wind tunnel. Using a nanoparticle-based planar laser scattering technique and an intermittency factor analysis, it is found that the rough metasurfaces considered here tend to increase the probability of boundary layer transition more than a smooth flat plate. It is also found that the roughness of a metasurface as represented by its longitudinal scale is positively correlated with the turbulence onset probability and exhibits an interesting linear trend.

Multiscale microstructural consideration of enhanced shear strength in TiAl intermetallic/K4169 alloy composite joints prepared by vacuum brazing with (Ti, Zr)-Ni-based amorphous filler metal

TiAl intermetallic could be used to replace Ni-based alloy in assemblies to generate excellent specific strength. A (Ti,Zr)-Ni-based amorphous filler metal Ti21.25Zr25Ni25Cu18.75 (at.%) was designed using a cluster-plus-glue-atom model to successfully vacuum braze K4169 and TiAl bimetallic assemblies. At various brazing temperatures and holding time, the quantitative relationships between lattice distortion, grain boundary, dislocation density, and hardness, elastic modulus, shear strength of the joints were investigated. Meanwhile, the fracture mechanism of the joints was revealed. The brazed seam mainly consisted of solid diffusion reaction layers (Zones I and III) and filler metal residue zone (Zone II). When the brazing temperature increased to 1030 °C, grain refinement occurred in the brazed seam. Zone I was primarily composed of (Ni)ss[0-11]+TiNi[011]/(Cr,Fe,Ni)ss[0-11]/(Ti,Zr)Ni[0-1-1]+(Cr,Fe,Ni)ss[0-11]. The (Ti,Zr)(Ni,Cu)[001] and (Ti,Zr)(Ni,Cu)[101] intermetallic compound-based solid solutions were formed in Zone II. And the lattice distortion of (Ti,Zr)(Ni,Cu)[101] and (Ti,Zr)(Ni,Cu)[001] was 32.05% and 14.82%, respectively. As a result, the proportion of low angle grain boundaries (LAGBs) and deformed grains in Zone II rose to 38.6% and 38.7%. In Zones I and III, the proportion of LAGBs reduced to 8% and 3.4%, respectively. As the holding time increased, the long-range diffusion of Al in Zone II caused the (Ti,Zr)(Ni,Cu)[001] with cubic structure to transform into (Ti,Zr)(Ni,Cu,Al)[00-1] with hexagonal crystal system structure, where the lattice distortion was 4.42% and 10.49% for a and c. At 1030 °C/10 min, the average geometrically necessary dislocation densities (GNDs) in Zones I, II and III were 9.87 × 1014 m−2, 8.55 × 1014 m−2 and 11.4 × 1014 m−2, respectively. Therefore, the shear strength of joints reached 322 MPa due to the lattice distortion, dislocation strengthening and fine grain strengthening. Meanwhile, the plastic and brittle hard phases were generated in Zone II and displayed a mechanical interlocking structure that contributed to the performance of the joint. Both (Ti,Zr)(Ni,Cu)[001] and (Ti,Zr)(Ni,Cu)[101] in Zone II formed along different low-index cleavage planes during transgranular fracture. The cracks initiated in this region extended to the interface between Zones I and II and exhibited bimodal grain characteristics.

Long-term moisture diffusion in vinylester resin and CFRP rebars: A 20-year case study

Moisture absorption in polymer composites is a slow process that can take several decades, so it is often modelled without experimental verification. This unique study reports the moisture diffusion in epoxy vinylester (VE) resin and carbon fibre reinforced pultruded (CFRP) rebars over a period of 20 years at ambient temperature. Non-Fickian diffusion in VE is modelled by the unified two-phase model, which combines the bound water or hindered diffusion and the polymer relaxation concepts. Calculations based on the short-term projection with an unknown true saturation moisture content result in highly underestimated predictions. The true secondary equilibrium is 30–60% higher than the Fickian "pseudo-equilibrium". Moisture absorption of CFRP rebars at 98% RH was studied on short and long samples to identify the axial and radial diffusivities. The concept of apparent diffusivity, combining edge and anisotropy effects, is extended to the case of cylindrical rebars. Rebars absorb up to 0.55% of moisture following the Fickian behaviour, and the predictions are consistent with the calculations using the microstructural considerations. Calculations based on short-term projections result in highly overestimated axial diffusivity and the ratio of diffusion anisotropy. Long-term ageing of VE resulted in up to a 40% reduction in tensile strength and a 10 °C reduction in glass transition temperature. The interlaminar shear strength of CFRP rebars decreased by 30%, and its partial retention after moisture desorption indicated interphase degradation. The results will contribute to an understanding of water diffusion and environmental ageing of VE-based composites, bridging the gap between real-life degradation performance and accelerated durability predictions.

Microstructural Considerations of a Multi-Pass Rolled Ti-Nb-Ta-Zr Alloy.

The microstructural characteristic evolution was investigated during thermomechanical processing of Ti-29Nb-9Ta-10Zr (wt %) alloy, which consisted of, in a first stage, in a Multi-Pass Rolling with increasing thickness reduction of 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 90%; in step two, the multi-pass rolled sample with the highest thickness reduction (90%) was subjected to a series of three variants of static short recrystallization and then to a final similar aging. The objective was to evaluate the microstructural features evolution during thermomechanical processing (phase's nature, morphology, dimensions, and crystallographic characteristics) and to find the optimal heat treatment variant for refinement of the alloy granulation until ultrafine/nanometric level for a promising combination of mechanical properties. The microstructural features were investigated by X-ray diffraction and SEM techniques through which the presence of two phases was recorded: the β-Ti phase and the α″-Ti martensitic phase. The corresponding cell parameters, dimensions of the coherent crystallite and the micro-deformations at the crystalline network level for both recorded phases were determined. The majority β-Ti phase underwent a strong refinement during the Multi-Pass Rolling process until ultrafine/nano grain dimension (about 9.8 nm), with subsequent slow growing during recrystallization and aging treatments, hindered by the presence of sub-micron α″-Ti phase dispersed inside β-Ti grains. An analysis concerning the possible deformation mechanisms was performed.

Hydration and mechanical properties of FGD gypsum-cement-mineral powder composites

Solving the problem of environmental pollution caused by flue gas desulfurization gypsum (FGD gypsum) accumulation is conducive to improving FGD gypsum green and sustainable development. In this study, the ternary system was prepared by using FGD gypsum, cement,and mineral powder. The simplex-centroid design method was used to determine the optimal proportions of FGD gypsum, cement, and mineral powder. The optimal proportions of FGD gypsum, cement, and mineral powder were designed by the simplex-centroid design method. The effects of cement and mineral powder contents on the mechanical and hydration properties of the ternary system were analyzed by contour map. Furthermore, the phase composition and microscopic morphology of the ternary system were analyzed by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Hydration processes of all samples were observed by the hydration heat. It was observed that the optimal proportions of FGD gypsum, cement, and mineral powder were 75%, 5%,and 20%, respectively by comprehensive considerations of strength, softening coefficient, water absorption, hydration, and microstructure. Compared with pure gypsum, both binary and ternary systems consisting of gypsum, cement, and mineral powder showed good water resistance. The softening coefficient at 28 d improved, reached 0.71 at the optimal proportion.

Consideration of microstructure in modelling the hydro-mechanical behaviour of unsaturated soils

The hydro-mechanical behaviour of unsaturated soils is often highly influenced by the microstructure; therefore, it can be beneficial to consider the effect of microstructure in a hydro-mechanical constitutive model. This paper considers the use of a microstructure-related model that adopts the effective degree of saturation as a microstructural index. The model can be used to reproduce the hydro-mechanical behaviour while the effect of the microstructure is considered. For comparison, a non-microstructuredependent model is also employed. The models are applied to simulate the behaviour of two different soilsand a comparison of the models’ performance in simulating triaxial test behaviour is made. Based on the comparison with experimental results and the non-microstructure-dependent model, it can be concluded thatthe adoption of the effective degree of saturation is beneficial to studying the hydro-mechanical behaviour of unsaturated soils affected by the microstructure.

Simulation of liquid flow in structured packings using CFD-methods

In this work the liquid flow in structured packings was investigated using the volume-of-fluid (VoF) method. Along with the fluid dynamics, convective transport of a tracer was studied to determine the residence time. A novel approach for the consideration of surface microstructure and perforations was applied and validated using data obtained with high-resolution computer tomography. Gas-liquid interfacial area, holdup and residence time distributions were well reproduced. The model was then applied to investigate two liquid systems (water and a mixture of water and triethyleneglycol), while two types of the standard packing Sulzer MellapakTM were explored. This allowed to evaluate the effects of liquid properties and geometric packing area on the flow.

Frequency-Driven Crack Propagation in Ultrasonically-Assisted Bone Cutting

Ultrasonically-assisted bone cutting with high precision has manyadvantagesfororthopedic surgeries. However, irregular crack propagation, large fractured chips, and surface damagemay occurduring the cutting processdue to the brittleness and anisotropy of cortical bone. These can be minimized by optimizing the operating parameters of the cutting tool; cutting frequency, amplitude, speed, depth, and temperature, inconsideration of the toughening mechanism of bone. Therefore, the current study is motivated to investigate the effect of varying frequencyon crack propagation in ultrasonically-assisted bone cutting through the means of finite element analysis. The pattern of crack propagation in relation to the variation of frequencieswas investigated using the extended finite element method (XFEM) in consideration of the bone microstructures. The results showed that crack propagation is effectively controlled when the tool isoperated at higher frequencies, but an up-forward crack propagation following the trajectory of tool vibration is only apparent at frequencies higher than 800 Hz. Neglecting the operating outputsat2400 Hz, the induced force and stress are observed to decrease proportionallywith increasing frequency.

Microstructure and integrity of multilayer ceramic coating with alumina top coat on silicon carbide by laser chemical vapor deposition

Thin double-layer coatings comprising an alumina top coat and mullite bond coat were deposited on SiC substrates by laser chemical vapor deposition (CVD). The effect of the presence of mullite bond coat and the phases of alumina top coat on the structural integrity against the thermal residual stress loaded by the high-temperature CVD process was examined by microstructural characterization and simulative consideration. A laminated layered structure having a dense γ-alumina top surface with a cone-like morphology are grown at a deposition temperature of 1323 K, whereas an α-alumina top layer comprising densely packed faceted grains was grown at 1473 K. The interfaces between the SiC and mullite layers were coherent owing to the formation of a thin transition layer. The γ-alumina layer formed an adhesive interface bordering the mullite layer, whereas small residual defects were formed in the α-alumina layer bordering the mullite layer. Spacings of surface cracking induced by the high-temperature deposition process in the double-layer coatings were approximately half of those in the coatings without mullite layers. As simulative results by finite element method suggested, the double-layer coatings were experimentally verified to be more tolerant to the formation of surface cracks and interfacial delamination, compared to single-layer coatings without the mullite bond layers.

Fracture in lightweight magnesia spinel refractory using heterogeneous simulation approach with a multiscale framework

The fracture behaviour of lightweight magnesia spinel refractory is simulated in this work and compared with common one with dense aggregates to demonstrate the influence of porous composite aggregate. With the consideration of aggregate-matrix microstructure as well as the high heterogeneity of refractory and porous composite aggregate, a microstructure-based heterogeneous continuum modelling strategy is proposed for establishing respectively both the meso-scale interfacial model and refractory multiscale wedge splitting test model. Due to the existence of fine pores and two mineral phases of periclase and spinel, the porous composite aggregate has rougher surface and localized microcracks caused by the thermal misfit of phases. The better interlocking of aggregate/matrix interface and diminishment of wall effect promote the propagation of transgranular cracks. Although the main failure is still in matrix and along interface, the sub-fracture process zone development within the porous composite aggregate further dissipates the energy, which results in the higher fracture energy compared with common magnesia spinel refractory. Two kind of magnesia spinel refractory present very different fracture mechanism.

Microstructure evolution of electrospun polyvinylidene fluoride fibers via stretching at varying temperatures

Understanding the microstructure of electrospun fibers is critical for tailoring fiber properties.The single-step acquisition of electrospun polyvinylidene fluoride fibers enriched with β-phase content is a promising energy material to replace butteries in small-scale flexible electronics. In this work, we focused on the evolution of the microstructure of electrospun PVDF fibers during stretching at varying temperatures and investigated the mechanism of electrospun fibers stretching in the view of the combination of fiber microstructure and macroscopic morphology considerations. The responses of alignment and structure, diameter, crystal orientation and crystal structure of electrospun fibers on the synchronous stimuli of temperatures and stretching were studied in detail. We found that at 150 °C, under the stimulation of stress, the fibers with lower alignment present higher molecular orientation, β-phase content reaching up to 90.5%, and excellent mechanical properties, which can be the main candidates for energy harvesting. Furthermore, not only macroscopic morphology but also the fiber microstructure is crucial for improving mechanical property of electrospun PVDF fibers membrane. The microstructure responses of electrospun PVDF fibers on such synchronous stimuli are positive for regulating the final properties of products, which also can open a new avenue for the design and exploitation of other electrospun fibers.

Physics-Based Simulation of Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy of Complex Electrode Microstructures

Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is a widely used technique to measure macroscopic properties of electrodes. However, the underlying connections between the obtained macroscopic properties and electrode microstructures are not well understood because of the complexity of coupled electrochemical mechanisms and microstructure morphology. In this work, we present a smoothed-boundary-method (SBM) electrochemical simulation framework to directly simulate the electrochemical dynamics with explicit consideration of electrode microstructures and extract EIS curves from the electrochemical simulations. This method uses continuous domain parameters to define the complex geometries of electrode particles and electrolyte phase in the interparticle space, thus circumventing the requirement of mesh conforming to the complex electrode microstructures in the simulations. The SBM is also utilized to calculate the double-layer capacitance that is required in the physics-based EIS simulations. The effects of the state of charge, salt concentration in electrolyte, and particle size distribution in electrode on the resulting EIS curves are examined using the SBM simulations. This simulation tool allows us to accessibly reveal the underlying connections between intrinsic material properties, microstructures, and macroscopic EIS measurements of battery electrodes.

Al-RHEA Particulates MMCs by PM Route: Mechanical Properties and Sliding Wear Response

New particle reinforced aluminum matrix composites with the addition of refractory High Entropy Alloy, MoTaNbVW, fabricated via powder metallurgy process were assessed for their properties. Basic mechanical properties (modulus of elasticity, hardness) for the aluminum matrix, the pure aluminum and the reinforcement phase were assessed by means of dynamic nano-indentation technique. Nano-indentation based creep response was also evaluated in these three areas of interest. Hardness shows an increase with the addition of the particulates and so does the elastic moduli and the ratio of the energy absorbed in the elastic region. The creep response was approached in terms of dislocation mobility and critical volume for their nucleation. The produced Al–HEA composites were also studied for their sliding wear behavior and showed that with the increase in percentage of RHEA particulates the wear resistance increases. Microstructural considerations, wear track morphologies, and debris characteristics were used for the assessment of the involved wear mechanisms.

Physics-based simulation of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy of complex electrode microstructures using smoothed boundary method

Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is a widely used technique to measure macroscopic properties of electrodes. However, the underlying connections between the obtained macroscopic properties and electrode microstructures are not well understood because of the complexity of coupled electrochemical mechanisms and microstructure morphologies. In this work, we present a smoothed-boundary-method (SBM) electrochemical simulation framework that allows us to directly simulate the electrochemical dynamics with parameterized material properties and explicit consideration of electrode microstructures, and to extract EIS curves from the electrochemical simulations. This method uses continuous domain parameters to define the complex geometries of electrode particles and electrolyte phase in the interparticle space, thus circumventing the requirement of computational mesh conforming to the complex electrode microstructures in the simulations. The SBM is also utilized to calculate the double-layer capacitance that is required in the physics-based EIS simulations. The effects of the state of charge, salt concentration in electrolyte, and particle size distribution in electrode on the resulting EIS curves are examined using the SBM simulations. This simulation tool allows us to reveal the underlying connections between intrinsic material properties, microstructures, and macroscopic EIS behavior of battery electrodes.

(Invited, Digital Presentation) Impedance Analysis of Porous Electrodes in Solid Oxide and Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells

Technical electrodes in fuel cells rely on complex multiphase microstructures that facilitate electronic, ionic and gas transport to active reaction sites distributed in the electrode volume. In such electrodes, material and microstructural properties of the porous electrode likewise determine the cell performance and different losses related to gas diffusion, electronic / ionic transport or the charge transfer at the active reaction sites might dominate the electrode resistance.Impedance spectroscopy is a powerful tool to evaluate and quantify the losses within a porous electrode. In this contribution it will be shown how impedance spectroscopy, an impedance data analysis by the distribution of relaxation times (DRT) (1,2) and a subsequent transmission line modeling (TLM) can provide physicochemically meaningful information about technical electrodes applied in solid oxide cells (SOC) (3-7) and polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEFC) (4,5). Limitations in TLM will be discussed and it will be shown that the well-established straight-forward approach of CNLS-fitting might lead to physicochemically incorrect results. Possible countermeasures as a pre-identification of TLM-parameters by means of separate electrical measurements and microstructural analysis or an appropriate selection of operating parameters during impedance analysis will be presented.An example for the application of TLM in electrode development and microstructural design of the multiphase microstructure will be discussed and examples how the TLM-approach can be used to optimize an electrode in consideration of available materials and producible microstructures will be shown.(1) S. Dierickx, A. Weber and E. Ivers-Tiffée, Electrochim Acta, 355, p. 136764 (2020).(2) A. Weber, tm - Technisches Messen, 88 (1), p. 1 (2021).(3) C. Endler-Schuck, J. Joos, C. Niedrig, A. Weber and E. Ivers-Tiffée, Solid State Ionics, 269, p. 67 (2015).(4) M. Heinzmann, A. Weber and E. Ivers-Tiffée, J. Power Sources, 402, p. 24 (2018).(5) M. Heinzmann, A. Weber and E. Ivers-Tiffée, J. Power Sources, 444, p. 227279 (2019).(6) S. Dierickx, J. Joos, A. Weber and E. Ivers-Tiffée, Electrochim Acta, 265, p. 736 (2018).(7) S. Dierickx, T. Mundloch, A. Weber and E. Ivers-Tiffée, J. Power Sources, 415, p. 69 (2019).