Michael Young Research Articles

Knowledge or competencies? A controversial question in contemporary curriculum debates

The question of knowledge versus competency in contemporary curricula is controversial. In this article we endeavour to show that the controversy has much to do with the way society is conceptualized as either a class differentiated or a function differentiated society. We examine Michael Young’s input to the curriculum debate concerning the question of knowledge with the aim of showing that his knowledge-centred approach, which considers class and status to be the main structuring influences on society, does not address the problems captured by a function differentiated perspective (society differentiated in function systems). We demonstrate that to understand knowledge adequately in the context of the challenges of a modern function differentiated society it is better conceptualized within a competency context. Finally, we argue that criticism from a class perspective does not adequately target specific problems arising from function differentiation.

Michael Young, Social Science, and the British Left, 1945–1970. By Lise Butler

<i>Michael Young, Social Science, and the British Left, 1945–1970</i>. By Lise Butler

Gateways to accessing powerful RE knowledge: a critical constructive analysis

This article examines the conditions for designing an epistemologically grounded teaching about religions through an identification of what knowledge is central to the subject of Religious Education (RE). A starting point for the analysis is a discussion of Michael Young's well-known concept of powerful knowledge, as a possible platform for developing an approach for how a knowledge base in the subject could be identified. The concept of powerful knowledge is shown to be relevant for how epistemological perspectives can be considered in relation to an analysis of the subject's knowledge base. Such an analysis is carried out, and the concept of threshold concepts is introduced to develop a broader and sharper theoretical framework, at the same time as Young's approach becomes the subject of a more in-depth discussion. The presentation leads to a discussion of various considerations relevant to an analysis of how a powerful RE knowledge may be understood.

Rethinking society and knowledge in Finnish social studies textbooks

ABSTRACT This paper discusses the relationship between knowledge and society in social studies by analysing how society is presented in four Finnish social studies textbooks currently in use in comprehensive education. Besides its empirical contribution, the paper examines the possibilities of applying Michael Young’s understanding of powerful knowledge in social studies by complementing it with two additional theoretical approaches to society. Firstly, by applying Basil Bernstein’s concept of recontextualisation, it is possible to elaborate on the way in which social studies textbooks reproduce societal power relations. Secondly, by observing the society of social studies textbooks in the light of Niklas Luhmann´s social systems theory, it is possible to examine how social reproduction in social studies is related to temporal forms of knowledge in a functionally differentiated, multifaceted society. The findings indicate that due to the present-focused and institutional approach to society, the textbooks offer few tools for critical understanding and for changing society.

Knowledge and the Sociology of Education

This paper does not go into detail concerning the current debate around the idea of “powerful knowledge”, however, a brief account of the history and context of the sub-discipline as it has developed in England, is presented. For that purpose, some references to the important works of Basil Bernstein are explicated. It was he after all, following the critical reception of his early work on linguistic codes, who first argued that knowledge, or as it is sometimes expressed “the stuff” and not just “the who” of education, was crucial to any serious debate. Some hot points in the debate between Bernstein and Michael Young are presented. The suggestion is given that differently from Bernstein ideas to take into account „pedagogical code“ in the knowledge reproduction we have to begin with the distinction between memorisation of knowledge which is close to the idea of consumption, and developing a relationship to knowledge which has more affinity with becoming a member of a community.

Currículo, conhecimento e o uso de tecnologias na formação docente

RESUMO: Este artigo discorre sobre o currículo, seus atravessamentos com o conhecimento e o uso das tecnologias na formação docente. Apresenta conceitos com base nas ideias discutidas por Ivor Goodson, Michael Young, Nelson Pretto, Cesar Monereo e outros. Tem como objetivo principal questionar o papel do currículo na docência universitária e a interação com o uso das tecnologias digitais. Para isso, traz uma pesquisa realizada com professores e alunos de cursos de Licenciatura, na perspectiva de uma aproximação sobre o tema. A elaboração desse artigo deu-se a partir de leituras, discussões e inquietações derivadas das aulas de mestrado e doutorado e da prática docente na graduação.

Powerful knowledge? A multidimensional ethical competence through a multitude of narratives

High-quality education has been considered important for social justice, although what good education means is contested. A project aimed at identifying varieties of conceptions of ethical competence (EthiCo) was presented as well as another that focused on a fiction-based approach to ethics education (EE). A multidimensional ethical competence mediated through a multitude of narratives was shown as a strong contribution to EE. The aim was to discuss as to what extent such a multidimensional ethical competence mediated through a multitude of narratives could be understood as powerful knowledge. Sweden, where national tests lately have been understood as a tool to increase achievements, but where an unclear understanding of desired knowledge in EE exists, was the setting. Methodologically, the article drew on Michael Young’s definition of powerful knowledge, a hermeneutic meta-study on the findings of EthiCo concerning conceptions of ethical competence, as well as Mark Tappan’s sociocultural perspective on moral development. These perspectives were brought together to discuss powerful knowledge in EE as a contribution to education for social justice. Whether a multidimensional ethical competence mediated through a multitude of narratives could be understood as powerful knowledge was shown to be dependent on the definition. Whilst Young’s powerful knowledge is restricted to an academic language, Tappan stresses vernacular language as characteristic for a functional moral discourse. One conclusion was the centrality of fiction in EE for the development of moral discourses that transcend reality and shape ‘knowledge of possibilities’ – powerful in the shaping of societal justice.

Influence of cosmetic formulations on the skin's circadian clock.

ObjectiveThe circadian rhythm was set into focus by awarding the Nobel Price of Physiology/Medicine to Jeffrey Hall, Michael Rosbash and Michael Young in late 2017. Numerous publications elucidated the molecular mechanisms driving the circadian biorhythms of our body, peripheral organs and each single cell. However, there is minor knowledge on the circadian rhythm of the skin, which has its own peripheral circadian clock in contact with cosmetic formulations. The skin's epidermal clock is excessively influenced by environmental factors like UV radiation or modern lifestyle, which may induce epidermal jetlag. Here, we give an overview on the current knowledge about the epidermal circadian clock and provide a cosmetic solution to protect and preserve the biorhythm of the skin.MethodsQuantitative RT‐PCR to analyse the gene expression of circadian clock genes and the downstream DNA repair gene OGG1 in keratinocytes irradiated with UV‐B. In vivo study to determine skin parameters dependent on the circadian cycle and interference of cosmetic formulations to them by assessment of morning and evening values at each measurement day after 28, 56 and 84 days of the study.ResultsUV‐B irradiation leads to a pronounced delay in circadian clock and downstream gene expression which interferes in the proper function of epidermal stem cells and as thus skin function. The use of a cosmetic active ingredient prevents cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer formation, protects epidermal stem cells and resets the circadian gene expression. It preserves the circadian changes in skin hydration, reduces daily fluctuations of skin redness and strengthens the skin barrier.ConclusionThe skin has its own circadian biorhythm to gain full functionality. Interruption of this oscillation will lead to functional impairments. Here we show a cosmetic solution to protect and preserve the skin's circadian rhythm. DNA protection, ROS elimination and stimulation of circadian gene expression seem to be crucial to keep the skin in balance.

‘Powerful knowledge’, ‘cultural literacy’ and the study of literature in schools

AbstractThere is no doubting the influence of E.D. Hirsch and Michael Young on UK education policy and practice over the last ten years. Hirsch’s notion of ‘cultural literacy’ and Young’s idea of ‘powerful knowledge’ are the theoretical drivers of a national shift towards ‘knowledge‐led’ or ‘knowledge‐rich’ school curricula. Evidence of this shift is plain to see in the current iteration of the National Curriculum for England and in the mission statements of a growing number of schools and academy trusts across the country.According to Robert Eaglestone, however, there is a mistake under the floorboards of the new, knowledge‐rich curriculum. It is a mistake that damages and distorts teaching in a number of curriculum subjects, but Eaglestone ‐ a literary critic and theorist ‐ focuses on its disastrous impact on the teaching of literature. Both Hirsch and Young fall prey to scientism: they take knowledge in the natural sciences as a template for knowledge across the board. Eaglestone shows first how scientism is baked into the theories of ‘cultural literacy’ and ‘powerful knowledge’, then how the adoption of these theories in schools has disfigured and diminished the teaching of literature.Eaglestone’s argument is arresting, timely and compelling. For those tasked with planning and teaching English curricula in schools, his penetrating analysis of where things have gone wrong and how to put them right will be revelatory and transformative. And for those concerned with curriculum theory and education policy more generally, it will reinvigorate and reorient the debate about what is helpful and what is not in the work of E.D. Hirsch and Michael Young.

‘Towards an epistemology of media education: confronting the problems of knowledge presented by social realism.’

ABSTRACT Recent debates about the status of knowledge in the school curriculum have seen the emergence of attempts to connect curriculum reform to the ideas about ‘powerful knowledge’ articulated by Michael Young and other sociologists. This article argues that for the case of media education, and specifically its application in secondary schools (in the form of Media Studies), these ideas are not adequate to explain the epistemological principles upon which the project is built. The paper takes a threefold approach to developing an epistemology of media education; firstly, by outlining existing work on the nature of knowledge in media education; secondly, by examining social realist arguments about the way that knowledge is manifested in things like school subjects and canonical knowledge and arguing that media education does not fit these manifestations; and finally by offering some alternative ideas upon which an epistemology of media education may be built.

The knowledge curve: combining types of knowledges leads to powerful thinking

Michael Young has written extensively about “powerful knowledge” as the type of knowledge that should be central in education: knowledge that is – among many other things – reliable and potentially testable, that helps us understand the natural and social world, and offers us a language to engage meaningfully in moral and political debates. As a contribution to the powerful knowledge debate, the authors introduce a so-called knowledge curve, depicting types of knowledge along the axes of level of abstraction and degree of explanatory power. They argue that combining elements of knowledge that are situated on different positions on this curve is what makes the use of knowledge and the thinking process powerful. The implications for school geography are illustrated with the example of global south to north migration.

Introduction: Meritocracy in Perspective. The Rise of the Meritocracy 60 Years On

AbstractSixty years after its publication, Michael Young’s The Rise of the Meritocracy remains one of the most important texts for understanding the changing intellectual politics of postwar Britain. Young’s fictional vision of a meritocratic society explores the consequences of a society where each citizen is judged according to the formula ‘I.Q. + Effort = Merit’. The successful meritocrats hoard ever‐greater rewards for themselves, crystallising into a rigid and repressive elite who rule over an increasingly powerless and depressed underclass. While the concept has evolved and adapted, the language of meritocracy is one of the great survivors of postwar British politics. In an age characterised by the rise of populist leaders and movements, as well as a backlash against educated ‘liberal elites’, revisiting, reinterpreting and re‐evaluating Young’s influential satire and the central place the concept of meritocracy occupies in the history of postwar Britain has never been more important.

Meritocracy, Elitism and Inequality

AbstractThe appeal of meritocracy is plain to see, because it appears to promote equality of opportunity. However, in this paper we argue that meritocracy is also a deeply elitist project. Firstly, we place Michael Young in context to show how his critique of meritocracy should be understood as a socialist vision to ameliorate class divides. Secondly, we show how economic inequality in the UK has not generated systematic resistance: in fact, inequality and belief in meritocracy have gone hand in hand. Thirdly, we argue that people see their own lives as meritocratic rather than ascribed, and that such values are deeply embedded in popular life. We offer two explanations for how such views have come about, and show how they have helped construct a more unequal society.

A ‘society … divisible into the blessed and the unblessed’: Michael Young and Meritocracy in Postwar Britain

Abstract‘Meritocracy’ continues to unfold as both core conceptual framework and political ideal of the language of social mobility. In recent decades, politicians of various hues have declared it a sine qua non of the so‐called ‘classless society’. The longer trajectory of postwar discourses of equality reveal a more chequered conceptual past. Its origins in the forums of revisionist social democracy of the 1950s, and subsequently popularised in the writings of social democratic polymath, Michael Young, are much more circumspect. The article considers pivotal contributions and developments of this conceptual history and trajectory. It considers the origins and emergence of meritocracy as a dimension of discourses of equality in the 1950s, and the formative contribution of Michael Young, reaction and responses on the left to his 1958 seminal work, The Rise of the Meritocracy, and the subsequent ‘meritocratic turn’. In spite of its satirical origins and warnings of dire social consequences, meritocracy presently enjoys a confirmatory position as a concept of opportunity and social mobility, as an embedded ideal of social organisation and means of allocating differential rewards.

The Perils and Penalties of Meritocracy: Sanctioning Inequalities and Legitimating Prejudice

AbstractThis article deploys insights from Michael Young’s 1958 satire The Rise of the Meritocracy to challenge the dominant ideology of meritocracy in contemporary British society. It draws on ethnographic research in schools over a twenty‐five year period to illustrate the damage the illusion of meritocracy inflicts on children and young people, but particularly those from working class backgrounds. It argues that the consequences of the pretence of meritocracy are to be found in everyday practices of testing, hyper‐competition and setting, and beyond the classroom in the designation of predominantly working class schools as ‘rubbish schools for rubbish learners’. It concludes that, beyond the negative consequences for working class learners, there are wider consequences for British society, exacerbating social divisions and encouraging the growth of distrust, prejudice, envy, resentment, and contempt between different social groups.

Powerful knowns and powerful knowings

ABSTRACTThe idea of powerful knowledge as a curriculum principle has led to extensive discussion. It has been framed as a way of bringing knowledge back into curriculum thinking in the light if its absence in curriculum theory. However, questions have been raised regarding powerful knowledge as a knowledge-based curriculum principle; questions about difficulties in converting it into curriculum content, as well as putting knowledge-as-an-end-in-itself above educational aims.The focus of this article is on how powerful knowledge can be conceived of as capacity-building curriculum content, as well as how this is related to the epistemological underpinning of the idea of powerful knowledge. Knowing as the capacity-building aspect of powerful knowledge is highlighted as is a widening of the concept of knowledge to also include tacit aspects in what counts as knowledge. Through revisiting Paul Hirst’s forms of knowledge as well as his practice turn, I argue that Hirst became stuck in a tension similar to Michael Young and Johan Muller. By a shift of focus from powerful knowns to powerful knowings the tension between a knowledge and practice-based view of the curriculum can be dissolved.

Envisaging the alternatives: from knowledge of the powerful to powerful knowledge in history classrooms

ABSTRACT In this case study, we explore pedagogical practices that could promote powerful knowledge in school history. We analyse teaching sessions conducted by two teachers. The cases were selected from an observation study that focused on historical literacy in Finnish schools. While Michael Young’s ideas of powerful knowledge have gained considerable attention in recent years, the pedagogical aspects of powerful knowledge have been less explored than its knowledge theorization. Our results indicate that promoting powerful knowledge is possible in school history. We suggest that powerful knowledge could be supported by teacher-led pedagogy that involves the systematic use of historical texts, and that uses disciplinary concepts to re-conceptualize everyday knowledge. Hence, teaching strives to unpack the (political) use of historical knowledge and narratives that represent the knowledge of the powerful.

The end of powerful knowledge?

This is a response to two discussions of my article 'The Weakness of "Powerful Knowledge"' featuring in 2018 in the London Review of Education 16 (2), the first by Johan Muller and Michael Young and the second by Jim Hordern. It also makes brief comments on pieces on powerful knowledge in the London Review of Education Special Issue 16 (3). The question I focus on here, as in 2018, is 'What is powerful knowledge?' I raise doubts about Muller and Young's new answer to this question as well as about Hordern's defence of Young's position more generally. I suggest in conclusion that it would be helpful to abandon the term 'powerful knowledge' and use language more suitable to impartial scholarly investigations.

Элитаристский дискурс справедливости: современные концепции и Россия

&lt;p&gt;В статье на примере концепций двух влиятельных авторов второй половины XX в. — социологов Майкла Янга и Дэниела Белла — анализируется идея меритократии — власти наиболее достойных, наиболее заслуженных.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Рассматриваются основные идеи знаменитой книги (антиутопии) М. Янга «Возвышение меритократии». Охарактеризованы основные этапы становления меритократического общества в антиутопии Янга. Показано, что основная проблема меритократии в изображении британского социолога — ее морально-этические изъяны, которые приводят в результате к классовому конфликту и последующему кризису и падению меритократии. С точки зрения автора статьи, более привлекательным выглядит социальный идеал, обрисованный Янгом, в рамках которого «общество талантов» понимается не как сугубо технократическое, а как подлинное общество равных возможностей.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Показано, что Д. Белл считает меритократию неотъемлемым атрибутом постиндустриального общества, однако учитывает критику этой идеи в работах М. Янга и Д. Ролза. Поэтому подлинная меритократия у Белла — это «справедливая меритократия», сочетающая равное уважение всех с отличием некоторых (наиболее достойных).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Изучены взгляды на проблему меритократии в современной России. Автор опирается главным образом на анализ российской ситуации у отечественного элитолога Г. К. Ашина. Он показывает, что элитные трансформации в постсоветской России, значительно изменив некоторые важные характеристики элиты, не изменили главного — ее морального облика.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;В заключение автор указывает, что меритократия обязательно должна сочетаться с развитыми демократическими механизмами, для того чтобы избежать отчуждения народа от власти.&lt;/p&gt;

Welcome to the Peoples of the Mountains and the Sea: Evaluating an Inaugural Indigenous Cultural Festival

Welcome to the Peoples of the Mountains and the Sea: Evaluating an Inaugural Indigenous Cultural Festival