Mexican Households Research Articles

La demanda de educación superior en México 2016

Pioneer theoretical approach from Becker (1987) and some modern hypothesis (Carnoy 2002; Llamas 2017) are analyzed and used to propose the estimation of the demand of higher education of the households. The price is represented by the relative labor incomes of occupied works with high school with respect to occupied workers with higher education; in turn, the amount is measured by the proportion of student of higher education with respect to members of the household within the age of reference. The selected control variables are chosen according with the modern concepts of Plan of life of the households, as well as Integrated knowledge required in the labor market (between others, educational climate, type of household, urban household, relative importance of public education). A model of demand of higher education is estimated, multiple linear regression with cross section data, using microdata of de ENIGH 2016. The estimations show that the relative labor incomes are not statistically significant, while the other variables are. That is, the social variables included in the variable Life Plan of the Households (per capita income, educational climate, nuclear household, public education, women head of household, urban environment) have relevance in the higher education demand of the Mexican households in the year 2016. Such demand is considered a sub-plan of the bigger one. It is a theoretical challenge to consider the variables and their empirical measurement contained in the Life Plan of the Households; also, the public policy challenge is to take care of these included variables because some of them are significant determinants of the higher education demand.

Vulnerabilidad alimentaria en hogares rurales y su relación con la política alimentaria en México


 El presente ensayo tuvo como objetivo identificar la vulnerabilidad alimentaria partiendo del origen del concepto ‘seguridad alimentaria’ y al mismo tiempo describir la política alimentaria mexicana. La pregunta que guió este trabajo fue ¿la situación de vulnerabilidad a los alimentos en hogares rurales mexicanos está relacionada con el sistema alimentario de los últimos años?, bajo el contexto de hogares en comunidades rurales con actividades agrícolas de subsistencia, suelos pobres en nutrientes, con alto índice de migración, escasas fuentes de empleo y con actividades artesanales para el mercado local. A través, de una revisión bibliográfica se identificó que el término de seguridad alimentaria fue acuñado por primera vez en la década de 1970, tiene cuatro dimensiones la disponibilidad se usa en escalas global y nacional, el acceso en el nivel hogar, el uso en lo individual y la estabilidad es el cruce de los anteriores. Dentro de los hallazgos se menciona que en 2010 alrededor de 49.9 millones de personas padecieron inseguridad alimentaria, las nuevas dinámicas rurales hicieron transformaciones en las actividades agrícolas que pasaron a ser complementarias, hubo una pérdida de identidad con el cambio de dietas y el alto consumo de productos externos, con una importación de al menos 35% del consumo interno en el país que ha provocado problemas de salud como el sobrepeso. Se concluye que la vulnerabilidad es la exposición de los hogares rurales a la inseguridad alimentaria, debido a la falta de recursos para comprarlos y de calidad en la dieta producto de un sistema alimentario global con efectos locales, en este sentido se deberá replantear el sistema alimentario mexicano con estructuras organizativas complejas y poner énfasis en fenómenos como la vulnerabilidad por su dinamismo a nivel hogar.

Remittances in Mexico and their unobserved components

ABSTRACTThe present study aims to determine the common trends and the permanent and transitory components of remittances received by Mexican households. This is done by estimating a small Dynamic Factor Model (DFM), using the approach first proposed by Gonzalo and Granger [1995. “Estimation of Common Long-memory Components in Cointegrated Systems.” Journal of Business and Economic Statistics 13 (1): 27–35], determining the number of common trends subject to the cointegration results. The study also shows the similarities between this small DFM with respect to large DFM, which are widely used in the econometric literature. The results indicate the presence of one cointegration relationship. Consequently, there are four common trends. The cointegration relationship is negatively dominated by Mexico's economic activity and positively by the US industrial production. The effects of the exchange rate and the US unemployment rate are positive, but less relevant. This economic scenario leads to remittances exceeding its permanent component.

Desigualdad social en torno al uso de tecnologías energéticamente eficientes en México. El caso de la política de normalización de refrigeradores

Objetivo: caracterizar económica y socialmente a los hogares mexicanos que carecen de refrigeradores energéticamente eficientes. Metodología: utilizando la información de la Encuesta Nacional sobre Consumo de Energéticos en Viviendas Particulares 2018, se aplicó un análisis de conglomerados de k-medias para identificar grupos de hogares en función del nivel de penetración de refrigeradores energéticamente eficientes. Posteriormente se aplicó un análisis de correspondencias múltiple para encontrar las relaciones entre los grupos de hogares sin refrigeradores energéticamente eficientes, su estrato socioeconómico y el tamaño de localidad, así como el tamaño del hogar. Resultados: se identificaron cerca de nueve millones de hogares sin refrigeradores energéticamente eficientes, los cuales se dividieron en cuatro grupos de acuerdo a las siguientes características: desplazados, pobres semiurbanos, pobres urbanos y clases medias. Limitaciones: la información socioeconómica que ofrece la fuente de información consultada es limitada, ello impidió caracterizar a mayor detalle los hogares, tampoco permitió analizar otros factores como el gasto, el consumo energético o las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero. Conclusiones: se encontró un escenario de desigualdad social en torno al acceso a los refrigeradores energéticamente eficientes. Por estas razones, se propone una política de sustentabilidad energética que incorpore de manera transversal la dimensión social implícita en el uso de refrigeradores.

Mexican Households’ Food Store Shopping Patterns and Healthfulness of Purchases (P18-117-19)

ObjectivesTo determine the patterns of food shopping in Mexico by store-type, and whether these are associated with the healthfulness of food purchases. MethodsUsing data from the Nielsen Mexico Consumer Panel Survey 2012–2015 (households (HH) = 5500), in each year we performed a k-means cluster analysis using households percentage of food and beverage purchases from each store type (i.e., convenience stores, traditional shops, supermarkets, wholesalers, and others). Separate clusters were derived for foods and beverages. We present the unadjusted mean volume (per capita/day) of less healthy and healthier products purchased in each cluster. ResultsThree distinctive patterns emerged for both foods and beverages, and these were consistent over time: a cluster in which most beverages were made at traditional stores (e.g., small tiendas [“Traditional” pattern]), supermarkets (“Supermarket” pattern), or both traditional stores, supermarkets, and convenience stores (beverages only) or wholesalers (foods only) (“Mixed” pattern).For beverages, the Traditional pattern was most prevalent (60% of HH); and households in this pattern purchased twice as many less healthy beverages as healthy beverages (710 ml vs 371 ml) overall. In the Supermarket beverage pattern (26% of HH), the relative volume of healthier and less healthy beverages was similar. In the Mixed beverage pattern (14% of HH), purchases of healthier beverages were higher than purchases of less healthy beverages (550 ml vs 364 ml) overall.For foods, households in the Supermarket pattern (38% of HH) and in the Mixed pattern (35% of HH), purchased a similar relative volume of healthier and less healthy foods. Households in the Traditional pattern (28% of HH) however, purchased more healthier foods than less healthy foods (75 g vs 54 g) overall. ConclusionsMexican households mainly rely in three combinations of stores to obtain their foods and beverages, which are associated with the healthfulness of their purchases of packaged products. Understanding the shopping behavior in Mexico can provide evidence to develop interventions that improve the healthfulness of the Mexican food environment and inform current policies. Funding SourcesBloomberg Philanthropies and the Mexican National Council of Science and Technology Scholarship (CONACyT).

Programas de asistencia alimentaria e inseguridad alimentaria en los hogares mexicanos pobres con menores de edad

Objetivo: evaluar el impacto de dos programas focalizados de asistencia alimentaria (Oportunidades y Programa Apoyo Alimentario [PAL]). Ello, en la experiencia de inseguridad alimentaria en hogares mexicanos con menores de edad. Metodología: se analizó la información de la Encuesta Nacional de Ingresos y Gastos de los Hogares 2014; fueron seleccionados los hogares en pobreza en los que existían menores de edad. La inseguridad alimentaria en el hogar se evaluó con la Escala Latinoamericana y Caribeña de Seguridad Alimentaria (ELCSA) y mediante la diversidad de la dieta. Resultados: los hogares pobres mostraron mayor probabilidad de menor variedad en la dieta y presentar algún grado de IA, así como de recibir algún tipo de ayuda gubernamental. Entre los hogares pobres, el recibir ingresos por programas de asistencia alimentaria no se relacionó con la inseguridad alimentaria, ni con la diversidad de la dieta. En cambio, la inseguridad alimentaria fue más frecuente en los hogares con jefe de familia soltero o indígena. La variedad en la dieta fue menor en hogares de localidades rurales y cuando el jefe de familia tenía baja escolaridad. Limitaciones: la naturaleza transversal del estudio no permite establecer relaciones causales. Conclusiones: la experiencia de inseguridad alimentaria en los hogares no varía en función de la participación de programas de asistencia alimentaria, lo cual cuestiona la existencia de políticas focalizadas para el combate a la pobreza y plantea la necesidad de dirigir los esfuerzos a aumentar el acceso a empleos remunerativos para las clases en desventaja social y económica.

Contribution of NOVA food groups to energy and nutrient supply in Mexican households

To analyze the contribution of natural, processed and ultra-processed foods to energy and nutrient supply in Mexican households. The database of the National Household Expenditure Survey 2013 was analyzed (n=58 001), which is a cross-sectional survey. Food supply (g/adult equivalent/day) and energy, macro- and micro-nutrient supplies were estimated. Foods were classified following the NOVA system. Households sociodemographic characteristics were analyzed as covariates. Natural foods (NF) contributed with more energy (55.0%) followed by ultra-processed foods (UPF, 21.2%). NF were the main source of most nutrients. Processed culinary ingredients (PCI) and processed foods (PF) had high content of energy, total fats, and saturated fats, but low content of certain micronu- trients. Sodium was mainly available in PF (34.6%) and UPF (31.4%). Sugar-sweetened beverages, fast foods, and biscuits and cookies were the main UPF in terms of energy supply. In Mexican households, the PCI, PF and UPF had low nutritional quality.

Supplementing Household Income through Self-Supply and Exchange: The Case of a Multiple-Exchange Fair in Mexico City, 2016.

For approximately 40% of Mexican households, income alone is insufficient to meet basic expenses. As a result, some families fulfill their needs through self-supply, the practice of producing goods either for direct consumption or eventual exchange. This paper demonstrates the effects that the self-supply practice has on household savings. The authors find that the practice of multiple exchange, which includes a combination of exchange, production, and self-supply, is a key mechanism that enables Mexican households to better meet their needs. Data from a survey given to participants of a trade-and-exchange fair in Mexico City in 2016 was used; the participants’ self-supply levels exceeded Mexico’s self-supply average, positively influencing their monetary savings. Download appendix online

Trends in Ultra-Processed Food Purchases from 1984 to 2016 in Mexican Households.

Global trade agreements have shaped the food system in ways that alter the availability, accessibility, affordability, and desirability of ready-to-eat foods. We assessed the time trends of ultra-processed foods purchases in Mexican households from 1984 to 2016. Cross-sectional data from 15 rounds of the National Income and Expenditure Survey (1984, 1989, 1992, 1994, 1996, 1998, 2000, 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008, 2010, 2012, 2014 and 2016) were analyzed. Food and beverage purchases collected in a daily record instrument (over seven days) were classified according to their degree of processing according to the NOVA food framework: (1) Unprocessed or minimally processed foods; (2) processed culinary ingredients; (3) processed foods; and (4) ultra-processed foods. From 1984 to 2016, the total daily energy purchased decreased from 2428.8 to 1875.4 kcal/Adult Equivalent/day, there was a decrease of unprocessed or minimally processed foods (from 69.8% to 61.4% kcal) and processed culinary ingredients (from 14.0% to 9.0% kcal), and an increase of processed foods (from 5.7% to 6.5% kcal) and ultra-processed foods (from 10.5% to 23.1% kcal). Given that ultra-processed foods purchases have doubled in the last three decades and unprocessed or minimally processed foods purchased have gradually declined, future strategies should promote the consumption of unprocessed or minimally processed foods, and discourage ultra-processed foods availability and accessibility in Mexico.

Multi-country Willingness to Pay for Transborder Migratory Species Conservation: A Case Study of Northern Pintails

Using contingent valuation, we estimated willingness to pay (WTP) in Canada, Mexico, and the United States to protect habitat for Northern Pintails (hereafter pintails), a migratory waterfowl species that provides benefits to and requires habitat in the three countries. Our study contributes to research on spatial subsidies by measuring the value of migratory species habitat. While WTP to protect pintail habitat is highest in the household's own country, there also is substantial WTP to protect pintail habitat in the other two countries. Canadian households' annual WTP is US$12 (all dollar values are in 2016 US dollars) to stabilize the pintail population in Canada, US$4 in Mexico, and US$5 in the U.S. Mexican households would pay US$8 in Mexico, US$5 in the U.S., and US$5 in Canada. U.S. households would pay US$28 in the U.S., US$18 in Canada, and US$16 in Mexico. WTP is statistically significantly higher in all three countries to increase the pintail population. WTP as a percentage of household income is statistically significantly higher for respondents in Mexico. WTP is logically related to explanatory variables such as respondent income, interest in hunting waterfowl, and financial support of wildlife conservation organizations. This study has important implications for conducting economic analyses of habitat issues of transboundary migratory species' conservation and to more effectively and equitably achieve conservation goals.

THE EFFECT OF NONCONTRIBUTORY PENSIONS ON SAVING IN MEXICO

This paper examines the effects of noncontributory pension programs at the federal and state levels on Mexican households' saving patterns using micro data from the Mexican Income and Expenditure Survey. We find that the federal program curtails saving among households whose oldest member is either 18–54 or 65–69 years old, possibly through anticipation effects, a decrease in the longevity risk faced by households, and a redistribution of income between households of different generations. Specifically, these households appear to be reallocating income away from saving into human capital investments, like education and health. Generally, state programs have neither significant effects on household saving, nor does the combination of federal and state programs. Finally, with a few exceptions, noncontributory pensions have no significant impact on the saving of households with members 70 years of age or older—individuals eligible for those pensions, plausibly because of their dissaving stage in the lifecycle. (JEL D14, J26, O12, H55)

Distributional effects on excise taxes among Mexican households

This paper measures the effect of excise taxes on specific goods for Mexican households. A semi-parametric quantile approach is used with a functional relationship to explain the payments of excise taxes for five category goods (high-calorie food, alcohol, tobacco, gasoline and diesel and others), using household consumption microdata in per capita units and attributes of the household head as explanatory variables as well. Findings show an average tax elasticity of -0.30 as a response in consumption of such goods. Also, quintile 1 bare a greater share of the tax burden and elasticities varies significantly along the quintiles with gasoline as the product with the greatest variation. It is original because it offers an alternative way to estimate not only incidence but also redistributive impacts on the payment of excise taxes with a semi-parametric measure along the quintile distribution for each good taxed.

Before and After the Reform: Fixed Line Internet Penetration in Mexican Households

Purpose – Despite being the second largest mobile market in Latin America regarding subscribers, Mexico’s penetration levels remain lower than the regional averages. The aim of this paper is to evaluate whether the Mexican 2013 Telecommunications and Broadcasting Reform helped mitigate or exacerbate the digital divide. In particular, we evaluate if the Reform had an impact on fixed-line internet penetration in Mexico.
 Methodology/approach/design – For the assessment, the 2010 Census and 2015 Intercensal Survey data used to create impact indexes through Generalized Linear Models (GLMs) estimations.
 Findings – Through a quintile analysis were confronted by results, with the intention of showing the average of internet penetration in each income group. The data obtained suggest that internet penetration had positive variations in all the quintiles indicating that recent regulatory changes in telecommunications matter had helped to reduce the digital divide.
 Practical implications – The poor and vulnerable groups remain at the digital exclusion; these groups need more digital inclusion actions.

Energy and nutrient supply according to food insecurity severity among Mexican households

Studies from Latin America have shown that food insecurity reduces dietary diversity. However, dietary diversity measures do not account for the energy and nutrient supply in households. The objective of our study was to know whether there are differences in food, energy and nutrients supplies in Mexican households according to their food insecurity level. We analyzed the database of the National Household Income and Expenditure Survey performed in Mexico in 2014. The modified Latin-American and Caribbean Food Security Scale was used to determine the existence of household food security or insecurity. Participants registered foods and beverages available at their homes during the previous week. The supply of energy and nutrients was estimated using Mexican and American food composition references. Mexican food secure households had greater supply of healthy (e.g., fresh fruits and vegetables, fish and seafood, and fresh meats) and unhealthy (e.g., processed meats, fries, sugar-sweetened beverages, desserts, and alcoholic beverages) foods. By contrast, food insecure households rely on cheap staple food (e.g. maize, rice, pulses, eggs, and sugar). There was a linear relationship between the energy density and severity of food insecurity. Households with mild and moderate food insecurity had greater total energy supplies than households with food security and severe food insecurity. Food insecure households had greater supplies of carbohydrates, cholesterol, iron, and magnesium, but lower supplies of protein, fat, vitamin C, vitamin A, potassium, calcium, and sodium. Most of the results suggest that food insecure households are exposed mostly to negative aspects of the nutrition transition because they have greater access to energy and lower availability of some micronutrients.

Household wellbeing and health risks in Mexican households with and without migrants: a cross-sectional analysis

BackgroundMigration between Mexico and the USA constitutes the world’s largest migration corridor with more than 13 million movements of people in 2016. Furthermore, Mexico has a complex migration profile, being a country of origin, transit, destination, and return. While there has been discussion on the relationship between migration and development of origin communities, evidence on social and health issues faced by origin households is limited. This case study is a first attempt at documenting, through analyzing a national representative health survey of Mexican households (n = 9474), the relationship between international migration from Mexico and origin household health characteristics.Case presentationMexican international migration moves largely (90% of migrants) toward the USA. Migration has passed from being mostly circular (from the early to late 1990s) to a permanent pattern of residence in the destination country due to changes in migration policies that have progressively restricted the irregular entrance of immigrants making re-entry more difficult.The present case study compares the socioeconomic, demographic, and health characteristics of households in Mexico with and without emigrants using data from a national representative health survey. Accordingly, in 2016, 5.8% (n = 1,802,980) of all Mexican households reported having a member living abroad.Households with members living abroad were found to more likely be headed by a female (45.8%), have Seguro Popular health insurance, and not to be among the poorest household population. In terms of health profile, a higher frequency of adults with a reported diagnosis of diabetes and/or hypertension (33.9 vs 21.7% for households with vs without emigrants, respectively; p = 0.067), and a higher severity of diabetes reflected a higher probability of hospitalization.ConclusionsResults showed that socioeconomic, demographic, and health conditions differed between households with and without emigrants. These differences were determined as not being attributable to migration and cannot be considered as predisposing factors of migration.

Willingness to Pay for Conservation of Transborder Migratory Species: A Case Study of the Mexican Free-Tailed Bat in the United States and Mexico.

We estimated U.S. and Mexican citizens' willingness to pay (WTP) for protecting habitat for a transborder migratory species, the Mexican free-tailed bat (Tadarida brasiliensis mexicana), using the contingent valuation method. Few contingent valuation surveys have evaluated whether households in one country would pay to protect habitat in another country. This study addresses that gap. In our study, Mexican respondents were asked about their WTP for conservation of Mexican free-tailed bat habitat in Mexico and in the United States. Similarly, U.S. respondents were asked about their WTP for conservation in the United States and in Mexico. U.S. households would pay $30 annually to protect habitat in the United States and $24 annually to protect habitat in Mexico. Mexican households would pay $8 annually to protect habitat in Mexico and $5 annually to protect habitat in the United States. In both countries, these WTP amounts rose significantly for increasing the size of the bat population rather than simply stabilizing the current bat population. The ratio of Mexican household WTP relative to U.S. household WTP is nearly identical to that of Mexican household income relative to U.S. household income. This suggests that the perceived economic benefits received from the bats is similar in Mexico and the United States, and that scaling WTP by relative income in international benefit transfer may be plausible.

Evolution of food insecurity in Mexican households: 2012-2016

To describe three relevant aspects of household food insecurity (FI) in Mexico: its magnitude, its distribution by social and nutritional vulnerability characteristics; its evolution between 2012 and 2016 and the effect of food assistance programs on FI in Mexican households. Data on 9 019 households were drawn from the 2016 National Health and Nutrition Survey (Ensanut 2016 for its Spanish initials) and were compared with data from the 2012 Ensanut. An analysis of differences in differences was made to measure the effect of food assis-tance programs on the evolution of FI. As many as 69.5% of households were classified as FI. Families located in rural areas (78.0%) and residing in southern Mexico (76.3%). Households with support from a food assistance program experienced a decrease in moderate and severe FI between 2012 and 2016. Findings can be used to design and target public policies seeking to improve food security governance in Mexico.

Was household internet adoption driven by the reform? Evaluation of the 2013 telecommunication reform in Mexico

In 2013 the Mexican Telecommunications and Broadcasting Reform was launched with the goal of promoting competition and access in the telecommunications sector. The aim of this paper is to evaluate whether the 2013 reform had an impact on household fixed internet adoption and to what extent Mexican households, classified into ten wealth groups, had adopted internet. For the assessment, after a revision of supply and demand Reform's measures to reduce the digital divide, data from the 2010 Census and 2015 Intercensal Survey were used to create adoption indexes using Poisson estimations. The results were analyzed by ten wealth groups, constructed on principal components based on household characteristics (type of dwelling, electricity availability, availability of drinking water, sewer system, internet and ICT devices: computer, telephone, cell phone and internet). Additionally, the impact of both indexes was validated by a difference in differences method. The results suggest a 66% overall increase in internet adoption between 2010 and 2015. The decile analysis showed considerable internet adoption in the low and middle wealth groups (deciles 2–8), while in the highest wealth groups (deciles 9–10) the impact of internet adoption has been relatively moderate. It is worth noting that internet adoption is unequally distributed, as less than 1% of households in deciles 1 to 6 had adopted internet in 2015, while nearly all of the wealthiest ten percent of households have internet access. Nevertheless the increment in internet adoption was not only the result of the reform but the combination of the broadband penetration trend and the reform together.

Calories and poverty during a prolonged crisis

We study how calorie intake changes during prolonged crises, by studying the calorie intake of households when exposed to short-term and long-term income and price shocks. We use data from household surveys of Mexican households during the income and price crises periods of 1994 to 1998 and 2006 to 2010. Our focus is on low-income Mexican households, those with the lowest 25% of expenditure per capita. There is little effect on calorie intake following an income decline in the short run. Once households are exposed to reduced incomes for a longer period, calorie intake falls. Households are able to weather short-term fluctuations in income by shifting consumption to food items that are cheaper per calorie, such as staple foods, by consuming more foods at home instead of outside the home, and by postponing expenditures on durable and semi-durable goods. When exposed to the income shock over a longer period of time, we posit that households are not able to defer durable and semi-durable purchases any more so their calorie consumption drops. Our results suggest that Mexican households may be able to sustain calorie intake when faced with an income shock, but it is less likely that they are able to do so if the income shock persists. The government may want to support poor constituents when they are faced with prolonged crises.

Modelos Estocásticos De Elección De Compra Recurrente Aplicados En Hogares De La Ciudad De México

This paper focuses on examining the behaviors of repeated purchase, brand duplication, shared loyalty, and double risk using stochastic models of recurring purchase decision. A quantitative study was carried out using the panel technique in 60 homes in Mexico City. Within a period of 12 weeks, the recurring purchasing behavior of these households was recorded and analyzed. The results show, in a scientific way, the behavior of recurrent purchases in Mexican households.