Restoration Method Research Articles

Restoration of Ecological Connectivity in Zhaotong City Under the Interference of Human Activities

Plateau ecological vulnerability areas are experiencing substantial ecological challenges that threaten the integrity of ecological networks (ENs) due to irrational human activities, leading to habitat fragmentation and ecological connectivity degradation. The objectives of this study focus on understanding the structure, connectivity, and responses of ENs to construction land, crucial for maintaining ecological sustainability. Employing the circuit theory, the Minimum Cumulative Resistance (MCR) model, and complex network analysis methods, the ENs are constructed and the evolution characteristics are analyzed. The Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR) model is used to explore the correlation between construction land and ecological pinch points. The number of ecological corridors increased by 42, and the total length was reduced by 432.85 km, for a reduction of 15.25%. The proportion of highest-level ecological pinch points declined from 0.95% to 0.67%, indicating enhanced overall connectivity. Complex network analysis showed declining betweenness centrality in eight ecological sources over two periods, indicating reduced connectivity in partial northern and central regions. Correlation analysis showed the interaction of regional economic development policies and regional ecological restoration measures on the ecological networks. In areas with positive correlations, six ecological conservation areas were designated to maintain existing connectivity. In regions with negative correlations, seven ecological restoration areas were planned to improve ecological connectivity through scientific ecological restoration methods. This research provides a framework for optimizing regional ecological networks and enhancing ecological connectivity in plateau ecological vulnerability areas. It offers significant insights into the optimization of the ecological security pattern and practical guidance for policymakers and planners seeking to maintain ecological sustainability and resilience.

Restoring Halodule uninervis: evaluating planting methods and biodiversity

Seagrass provides a crucial habitat for numerous marine species and serves as a vital food source for endangered species, like dugongs. While extensive research on restoration has been conducted on certain temperate and slow‐growing climax seagrass species, limited attention has been given to tropical pioneer species. This study aimed to assess and compare two restoration methods for the pioneer seagrass Halodule uninervis and evaluate their potential for biodiversity recovery after planting. We conducted a field experiment at subtropical Inhaca Island, southern Mozambique, testing the efficiency of two planting methods (plugs and single shoots) and two planting densities (~100 and ~300 shoots/m2). We monitored seagrass shoot density in two sites for 16 months, and benthic macrofauna density for 12 months. Results demonstrated that seagrass could grow in all combinations of planting methods and densities in both sites. Specifically, the single shoot method at the high‐density treatment proved the most effective, resulting in approximately 1000 shoots/m2 within a year. Faunal densities, primarily dominated by polychaetes followed by malacostraca, bivalves, and gastropods, indicated rapid colonization of the planted areas, especially in the high‐density treatments. Our findings suggest that restoring H. uninervis is feasible using the two tested planting methods. This is particularly significant because H. uninervis is a preferred dugong food source, and its decline due to anthropogenic activities could be reversed through restoration efforts. Nonetheless, conserving existing seagrass should be the primary focus, and restoration approaches should be employed as a valuable tool for managing coastal areas.

Soil carbon, nitrogen, and potassium regulate herbaceous community stability in the restoration phases of desertification land

AbstractSoil carbon, phosphorus, and nitrogen are crucial components that influence the stability of herbaceous plant communities in desertified land restoration. However, there is a dearth of data on the variables that impact the stability of herbaceous communities at various stages of restoration. This study investigated the variables of soil and plant communities on desertified land with varying recovery periods (recovery time less than 10 years, 10–20 years, and more than 20 years) to examine the alterations in the stability of herbaceous communities and the influence of soil nutrients on these changes. Our results indicated that the stability of herbaceous communities exhibited a positive correlation with recovery time. Further research suggests that total carbon (TC) and available nitrogen (AN) levels of soil significantly influenced the herbaceous community's stability when the recovery period was less than 10 years. Total nitrogen (TN) and TC levels of soil affected the community's stability when the recovery period ranged from 10 to 20 years. When the duration of recovery surpassed 20 years, available potassium (AK) in soil significantly impacted the community's stability. This suggested that soil nutrients influence the stability of the herbaceous community. Our findings suggest that soil nutrition is a crucial factor in the initial phase of ecological restoration on desertified land. These findings offer empirical evidence for comprehending the stabilizing mechanism of herbaceous communities in desertified land and provide theoretical backing for ecological restoration methods.

Ancient frameworks as modern templates: exploring reef rubble consolidation in an ancient reef system.

Both natural and human-induced stressors cause reef erosion, resulting in reef rubble formation. When consolidated, the rubble can facilitate reef recovery, sparking interest in artificial rubble stabilization as a method for reef restoration. However, our understanding of the natural processes governing coral reef regeneration within rubble beds is limited. This study examines the regeneration processes within ancient rubble frameworks in a Late Triassic carbonate platform. Results show that Late Triassic rubble environments exhibit successional trajectories similar to contemporary rubble environments. Key organisms such as sponges, calcareous red algae, bryozoans, microbes and scleractinian corals, which are instrumental in the consolidation of modern reef rubble, appear to have played comparable roles during the Late Triassic. The similarities between Late Triassic and modern reef rubble consolidation highlight enduring ecological mechanisms important for reef regeneration. This study deepens our understanding of reef dynamics and offers valuable insights for improving current reef restoration strategies, grounded in time-tested natural processes.

Unveiling the Immaterial: The Premier Building Restoration Project At The Hope Waddell Institution

The Premier Building Restoration Project at the Hope Waddell Institution sought to explore architecture as a dynamic process that transcends mere physical reconstruction, engaging deeply with the immaterial aspects that shape and define built environments. This project was set against the backdrop of the Venice Charter to address pressing environmental, spiritual and cultural concerns, yet it equally emphasizes the importance of 'weightless' elements—narratives, memories, and cultural significances—that often remain hidden beneath the surface. Hope Waddell Institution, a historical educational complex with deep roots in Calabar, Nigeria’s socio-cultural fabric, serves as a case study for investigating the interplay between tangible and intangible heritage. The restoration project of the Premier Building is not merely about preserving the Scottish prefabricated wooden structure but about uncovering and reintegrating the institution’s rich traditional materiality,cultural heritage, stories, and historical figures that have shaped its legacy. By utilizing an inter/multi/transdisciplinary methodology, the project incorporates archival research, community narratives, and traditional use restorative analysis to reveal the hidden layers of the Premier building’s past. This includes understanding the socio-political contexts of its establishment, the evolving educational paradigms, and the community’s ongoing relationship with the space. The project challenges traditional restoration methods, proposing a more holistic view that considers the immaterial as equally crucial to the institution’s heritage. The Premier Building Restoration Project thus serves as a model for contemporary architectural practice, emphasizing the need to approach the built environment as a repository of hidden memories and stories. This approach not only enriches our understanding of architectural heritage but also fosters a more inclusive and reflective process of architectural (re)making, where the unseen and unheard narratives are brought to the forefront, expanding the discipline beyond its conventional boundaries.

Targeted cattle grazing for shrub control in woody‐encroached oak savannas

Woody encroachment threatens savanna ecosystems around the world. In the midwestern United States, remnant oak savannas persist in a woody‐encroached state due to the removal of grazing and fire disturbances from the landscape. Primary oak savanna restoration methods, such as thinning and fire, can promote a dense shrub layer. Therefore, it is necessary to explore other tools to control woody species, such as targeted grazing. We conducted an experiment to evaluate the effectiveness of targeted cattle grazing as a shrub control method and its impacts on the herbaceous community. We used high‐density, short‐duration grazing to target shrubs and minimize negative non‐target impacts. We found that this type of cattle management reduced shrub density over the short term, but there was substantial resprout after 1 year of no grazing. Targeted grazing lowered herbaceous cover and shifted species composition but did not affect herbaceous species richness or diversity. We saw no increase in non‐native cover during the study, though we documented isolated occurrences of new non‐native species in the grazing paddocks. Overall, our study points to the potential of targeted cattle grazing as a viable tool to help restore the understory of woody‐encroached ecosystems. Successfully meeting vegetation objectives requires a grazing manager with knowledge of the site, the target species, and livestock care and nutrition, as well as a commitment to adaptive management.

Novel Esthetic Technique for Restoring Dental Implant Access Holes: A Case Report

Background/Objectives: For dental implant treatment to be successful, esthetics, functionality, and cleanability are all required of the superstructure, which is the final prosthesis. Screw fixation and cementation have been the conventional methods of choice for the crown prosthesis of implants, but these individual methods cannot fulfill all the requirements. Methods: As a solution to this problem, we have devised a new implant superstructure restoration method called the inlay covering esthetic technique, which uses computer-aided design/computer-aided manufacturing inlays. Results: It involves the placement of an inlay covering the access hole in a highly translucent partially stabilized zirconia crown. Conclusions: This technique, demonstrated in this clinical case study, expands the indications for implant treatment and improves the oral quality of life of patients. This case report describes a novel esthetic technique for restoring dental implant access holes.

Streamflow and Groundwater Response to Stream Restoration Using Beaver Dam Analogues in a Semi‐Arid Perennial Stream

ABSTRACTDegradation of stream and riparian environments across the western United States has damaged critical ecosystems, water quality, and increased sedimentation of reservoirs. Low tech, process‐based restoration methods such as beaver dam analogues (BDAs) have been adopted by practitioners because they restore ecosystem function, improve habitat, and reduce downstream sediment delivery at a low cost. However, few studies have examined the potential impacts of beaver dam analogues on the quantity and timing of streamflow, which is of primary concern for water stakeholders. We address this gap with 2 years of streamflow and riparian groundwater observations before and after installing a series of 17 BDAs on Fish Creek, a first‐order stream in semi‐arid northern Utah. Within 8 weeks of BDA installation, and 1 year later, we found no significant change in streamflow compared with control and Regional Reference sites. Shallow groundwater table elevations within 7 m of the stream edge increased significantly, up to 14 cm, relative to the control reach. Our results suggest that the small, local hydrological changes from BDA installation are superimposed on much larger‐scale snowmelt and alluvial groundwater controls on streamflow, suggesting BDA installation can restore ecosystem function without deleterious impacts on streamflow. These findings are especially relevant to restoration and water stakeholders with concerns about impacts of BDAs on downstream flows.

Modern legal problems of restoration of lands damaged as a result of military operations

Military actions have had a global negative impact on the land and soil of Ukraine as a whole, causing widespread contamination and degradation. Daily airstrikes and shelling leave deep craters, heavy metals from shells and military equipment penetrate the soil and groundwater, soil permeability decreases, oxygen is displaced, biochemical and microbiological processes are disrupted, vast areas are scorched by fires, and the risk of toxic waste emissions from industrial enterprises in temporarily occupied territories of Ukraine increases. Additionally, there is massive flooding of closed and war-damaged mines. Furthermore, Ukraine is the most mined country in the world. Unfortunately, this list is not exhaustive. The restoration of Ukrainian land and soil is one of the priority tasks in the post-war period, as it affects not only the ecological safety of the state but also its economic stability and development. Given the scale of the problems facing Ukraine, a comprehensive approach is needed, including legal, technological, and organizational support for land restoration. Important stages in this process are the assessment of the degree of damage, the development of an effective methodology for damage compensation, the implementation of modern technologies, the development and implementation of new regulations governing land restoration procedures, and the establishment of clear standards for soil quality. Ukraine also needs to take into account the experience of other countries in land restoration after military conflicts, particularly those that have applied innovative approaches and modern technologies for soil rehabilitation. This will help implement the best practices and restoration methods, ensuring effective and rapid land recovery. International cooperation and support will play a crucial role in this process, as the issue of restoring land and soil damaged by war is not only a domestic matter for Ukraine but also a challenge for the entire global community. Successful examples of land restoration in other countries demonstrate Ukraine’s readiness and ability to cope with the consequences of war and ensure sustainable development in the future, which is a priority task on which Ukraine’s future depends. Considering environmental, economic, and social aspects in the restoration process will allow not only to restore soil fertility but also to create conditions for sustainable development and prosperity of the country.

Comparative Analysis of Ecological Restoration Methods Applied to Rehabilitate Mining Sites: A Case Study of the Fushun and Pingshuo Mining Sites in China Using Remote Sensing Techniques Between 2000 and 2024

This study presents a comparative analysis of ecological restoration methods employed to rehabilitate mining sites, focusing on the Fushun and Pingshuo mining areas in China. Given the significant environmental degradation which has resulted from the mining activities. Effective restoration strategies are essential for enhancing biodiversity and ecological integrity. This research evaluates changes in vegetation cover and environmental health at both sites while employing metrics such as the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and land cover classification utilizing remote sensing techniques. This study addresses three primary objectives which are: assessing vegetation recovery post-restoration, analyzing soil and water quality improvements, and comparing the effectiveness of various restoration methods. Preliminary findings indicate that while both sites have achieved notable vegetation recovery, differences in restoration techniques, regulatory frameworks, and environmental conditions influence outcomes. This research takes into account the important role of remote sensing in monitoring restoration success and informs best practices for future ecological restoration initiatives in mining-affected regions.

The Historical and Theoretical Rationale for Ecological Protection and Restoration: Experiences from China

This study aims to elucidate the historical justification for protection and restoration efforts in China while also examining the theoretical underpinnings of ecological conservation and restoration. Utilizing a literature review method, logical reasoning method, and inductive summarizing method, the historical and theoretical frameworks of territorial spatial ecological conservation and restoration are elucidated, leading to the following conclusions: (1) The ecological protection and restoration of national land space represents an advanced form of land remediation; however, they differ in terms of objects, principles, goals, and measures. (2) Territorial space ecological protection and restoration is historically unavoidable due to the current phase of societal development, driven by the natural environment and the necessity to establish an ecological civilization. (3) To implement territorial spatial ecological protection and restoration effectively and rationally, it is essential to comprehend its systematicity, territoriality, dynamics, and scientificity. By clarifying its historical and theoretical rationale, we can achieve a deeper understanding of its current relevance. This can effectively inform practical efforts in territorial spatial ecological protection and restoration.

Harnessing Nature's Resilience through Farmer-Managed Natural Regeneration for Climate Change Adaptation in the Central Rift, Kenya

Climate change affects nations differently according to their natural environment and economic structure. Communities living in arid and semi-arid lands, such as in Central Rift Valley of Kenya, who heavily rely on natural resources for livelihood, bear the heavy brunt of climate change impacts. This study focuses on these regions, where communities face challenges of water scarcity, erratic rainfall patterns, land degradation, increased frequency of floods and droughts. These climatic changes negatively affect crop yields, diminish animal fodder production, and reduce availability of firewood, exacerbating the vulnerability of these communities to food insecurity and economic instability. FMNR (Farmer-Managed Natural Regeneration) is a land restoration method where farmers foster growth of native trees and shrubs on their land by selectively pruning and protecting existing vegetation. It enhances soil fertility, water retention, and biodiversity while providing benefits of increased crop yields and additional income sources for farmers. Despite promotion of FMNR, a systematic presentation of evidence regarding its success in enhancing adaptation to climate change impacts in Central Rift, Kenya, has been notably absent. Using theory-based evaluation, key informant interviews, focus group discussions, transect walks, questionnaire, and documentary reviews, this study sought to assess the effectiveness of FMNR as an adaptation strategy in World Vision implementation sites within the Central Rift Valley including; Ndabibi in Nakuru; Marigat in Baringo and Ng’oswet in Elgeiyo Marakwet Counties. The study’s quantitative data was analyzed using statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) while the qualitative data was analyzed using NVivo software. The findings revealed notable improvements in forest cover with direct impacts of FMNR in forest cover from 500 acres at baseline to 6938 acres at the end line, increased average tree cover in farmlands from 79.5% to 122.6%, and in community lands from 89.9% to 109.2%. The indirect impacts, which may not solely be attributed to FMNR, include improved food security from 42.6% at the baseline to 73.6% at the end line, improved livelihoods by about 68% per annum, and improved capacity building/stakeholder engagement, all positively contributing to climate change adaptation. A situational analysis before the implementation of FMNR had highlighted environmental deterioration; food insecurity, increased poverty and negative effect on livelihoods. The study concludes that FMNR is an effective strategy for mitigating and adapting to the adverse impacts of climate change. Policymakers are urged to integrate FMNR into national agroforestry and climate change policies, ensure broader adoption and long-term sustainability, while further research is needed to address existing limitations constraining the technique.

The Impact of Different Fertilization Methods on Soil Heavy Metal Pollution and Restoration Methods

Soil heavy metal contamination, exacerbated by the long-term use of phosphate and organic fertilizers, poses a significant threat to agriculture and global ecosystems. Accumulation of heavy metals such as arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and mercury (Hg) in soils can endanger human health and ecosystem services. This paper evaluates the content of heavy metals in various fertilizers and reviews existing remediation technologies. Among these, plant-microbe collaborative remediation shows promise for mitigating heavy metal pollution, although its effectiveness in multi-pollutant environments remains underexplored. Current research reveals a gap between laboratory results and practical applications, with limited studies on long-term ecological impacts. Future research should prioritize addressing complex pollution scenarios and developing efficient, eco-friendly remediation strategies to promote sustainable agriculture and environmental protection

Construction of Key Technology System for Mine Ecological Restoration Under System Perspective

Mine ecological restoration has experienced a long-term development process in China, in which various technologies have been constantly developing and integrating. Based on the related theoretical research and field program, the technical system of mine ecological restoration was constructed, and the characteristics of key technologies were specifically grasped. In this research, the environment, including natural elements and the spatial environment, is the object of mine ecological restoration, which requires further long-term investigation and monitoring. Therefore, natural element restoration technology, space environment restoration technology, and environmental survey and restoration monitoring technology should be considered when establishing technical systems. The research showed that： ① In mine natural element restoration, where soil and water are important, traditional technologies like pollution abatement with physical, chemical, and biological methods have been extensively used. Meanwhile, artificial soil reconstruction and multi-technology joint remediation became the main study focus in soil restoration and artificial wetlands have been gradually constructed as a new method in water restoration, covering water system restoration and pollution control. ② The two tasks of space environment restoration were geological disaster prevention and vegetation re-greening. Major technologies of the former were applied to surface mine slope treatment and mining subsidence area control, the latter of which could be divided into three technical links： vegetation selection, construction, and maintenance. Although many technologies are valid, a few frontiers need to be further pursued. ③ The mine environmental investigation and restoration monitoring were based on 3S technologies, containing GIS, GPS, and RS, all of which are developing rapidly but still have a large space for integration and innovation.

The return of raptors to Scotland's skies: Investigating the diets of reintroduced red kites and white-tailed eagles using stable isotopes.

Species reintroductions are increasingly seen as important methods of biodiversity restoration. Reintroductions of red kites Milvus milvus and white-tailed eagles Halieaeetus albicilla to Britain, which were extirpated in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, represent major conservation successes. Here, we measured stable isotope ratios of carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) in feather keratin and bone collagen of museum specimens of red kites and white-tailed eagles, which were collected from across Scotland between the 1800s and 2010s. Our objectives were to investigate dietary differences between species and between the pre- and post- reintroduction periods. Among reintroduced birds, δ13C values were significantly less negative and δ15N values higher in feather keratin and bone collagen of white-tailed eagles compared to red kites, likely reflecting a greater reliance on marine resources by the former. Our stable isotope data showed a wide range, confirming the dietary diversity observed in conventional diet studies of both taxa, with white-tailed eagles, in particular, having wide dietary niches and a considerable degree of inter-individual variability. Isotopic data from pre-introduction red kites mostly fell within the range of post-reintroduction birds, suggesting they had similar diets to the pre-reintroduction birds, or the prey base for modern birds is isotopically indistinguishable from that of their historic counterparts. For white-tailed eagles, several pre-reintroduction birds were isotopically distinct from the post-reintroduction population. These differences may indicate a changing prey base, although these conclusions are complicated by shifting distributions and small population samples. Overall, our study demonstrates the utility of natural history collections in examining changes in diet, environment, and interactions with humans in reintroduced species compared with pre-extirpation indigenous populations.

Restoration of filigree artefacts at the National Palace Museum of Taiwan using micro tungsten inert gas welding

Artefacts adorned with intricate and elegant gilt filigree evoke a strong visual impression in viewers. However, this type of object is fragile and prone to deformation, fractures and defects owing to external physical forces. Modern restoration materials and methods fail to meet the structural and aesthetic values required for this type of artefact. This study introduces micro tungsten inert gas welding into the repertoire of decorative metal artefact restoration. In particular, it is aimed to address issues in adhesive-based methods used in the past, where a lack of metal ductility and malleability makes the artefacts prone to recurrent fractures. In addition, after restoration using this method any filigree component can be regilded to emphasise the unique aesthetic value of filigree. Finally, this study explored how conservators and restorers adapt and implement improved museum restoration techniques by utilising safe and tailored approaches to help ensure more effective treatments.

The impact of the variation in vertical load and the presence of openings on the mechanical response of masonry walls

This article aims to analyse the mechanical response of masonry walls under cyclic loading using the finite element method with Abaqus software. The proposed model has been validated using available numerical and experimental results. This work provides an in-depth study of the cracking modes of masonry walls based on different vertical loads and the presence of openings. By using numerical simulations, it identifies the types of cracks that develop, their propagation, and their interaction with the structure. A parametric study will then be conducted to assess the influence of variations in vertical load and the effect of openings on the behaviour of the walls. Load-displacement curves and failure modes are presented and analysed. The results show that these parameters have a significant impact on wall behaviour. Specifically, an increase in vertical load improves the wall's resistance, while openings create weakness zones that promote degradation and reduce strength. A thorough understanding of the behaviour of unreinforced masonry structures is essential for making informed decisions regarding restoration methods.

A novel immobilized bacteria consortium enhanced remediation efficiency of PAHs in soil: Insights into key removal mechanism and main driving factor.

The remediation of sites co-contaminated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and heavy metals (HMs) poses challenges for efficient and ecofriendly restoration methods. In this study, three strains (Pseudomonas sp. PDC-1, Rhodococcus sp. RDC-1, and Enterobacter sp. EDC-1) were isolated from sites contaminated with PAHs and HMs. The constructed bacteria consortium was then immobilized using biochar, bentonite, and peat. The immobilized bacteria consortium (IBC) demonstrated efficient removal ability of phenanthrene (58.1 %-73.4 %) and benzo[a]pyrene (69.6 %-83.5 %) during 60 days. Additionally, the IBC decreased soil bacterial richness and diversity, but increased the relative abundance of Proteobacteria phylum and Ochrobactrum genus, which were capable of degrading PAHs. Soil microbial co-occurrence network with IBC was classified into three main modules, and 14 genera were identified as keystone taxa linked to PAHs degradation and HMs resistance. The IBC enhanced the dioxygenase metabolic pathways for PAHs degradation, including phthalic acid and salicylic acid pathways, which became the main driving factor affecting PAHs removal efficiency based on the structural equation modeling analysis. This study confirmed the potential application of the constructed IBC in the bioremediation of soil co-contaminated with PAHs-HMs, and provides insights into key removal mechanism and main driving factor of the enhanced elimination of PAHs.

Dental Implantation in Orthopedic Dentistry

With the advent of intraosseous dental implantation, the range of orthopedic options has significantly expanded. Instead of removable dentures, aesthetic bridges supported by implants can be installed that are more comfortable and outwardly indistinguishable from natural teeth. But, like other dental restoration methods, dental implantation has supporters and opponents, and before proceeding with it, you need to weigh the pros and cons.

Enhanced restoration of visual code after targeting ON bipolar cells compared with retinal ganglion cells with optogenetic therapy.

Optogenetic therapy is a promising vision restoration method where light-sensitive opsins are introduced to the surviving inner retina following photoreceptor degeneration. The cell type targeted for opsin expression will likely influence the quality of restored vision. However, a like-for-like preclinical comparison of visual responses evoked following equivalent opsin expression in the two major targets, ON bipolar (ON BCs) or retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), is absent. We address this deficit by comparing stimulus-response characteristics at single-unit resolution in the retina and dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus of retinally degenerate mice genetically engineered to express the opsin ReaChR in Grm6- or Brn3c-expressing cells (ON BC vs. RGCs, respectively). For both targeting strategies, we find ReaChR-evoked responses have equivalent sensitivity and can encode contrast across different background irradiances. Compared with ON BCs, targeting RGCs decreased response reproducibility andresulted in more stereotyped responses with reduced diversity in response polarity, contrast sensitivity, and temporal frequency tuning. Recording ReaChR-driven responses in visually intact retinas confirmed that RGC-targeted ReaChR expression disrupts visual feature selectivity of individual RGCs. Our data show that, while both approaches restore visual responses with impressive fidelity, ON BC targeting produces a richer visual code closer to that of wild-type mice.