Neuroscience Methods Research Articles

Can’t Stop the Feeling: Influence of Incidental Emotions on Manager’s Willingness to Delegate to AI

Artificial Intelligence (AI) based technologies provide manifold opportunities to augment managerial decision-making. Managers can delegate decisions to the increasingly available and capable AI-enabled decision-making systems. This study looks into the managerial willingness to do so with a particular emphasis on the influence of emotions on the manager’s choice to hand over strategic decisions to AI. Prior research has shown that both cognitive and emotional aspects influence decision-making. Furthermore, we know that emotions induced by technology influence a system’s adoption and use. However, despite the acknowledged relevance of emotions, prior research has not yet emphasised the impact of incidental emotions – emotions triggered by events unrelated to the decision or the AI-enabled system use – on decision-making and delegation. Using an experimental research design enhanced by data collected through cognitive neuroscience methods, we analyse the impact of positive, incidental emotions and their states valence and arousal on a manager’s willingness to delegate a strategic decision to an AI-enabled system. The findings reveal that positive incidental emotions, as well as high values of valence, positively impact a managers willingness to delegate strategic decisions to an AI-enabled system. The paper concludes by discussing the study’s implications for technology adoption and managerial decision delegation by highlighting the relevance of emotional factors in managers’ adoption of AI and the additional value of neuroscientific data.

Perspective: Why Organizational Researchers Should Consider Psychophysiology When Investigating Emotion?

Although neuroscience is currently gaining wide acceptance in organization science and management studies, some important questions remain unanswered and may hinder the development of so-called organizational neuroscience. Specifically, it appears that the usefulness and the applications of neuroscience methods to organization science are still unclear. Hence, the paper addresses this by examining the role of psychophysiology in investigating implicit emotional experience in organizational behaviors and by discussing how concepts from affective sciences and psychophysiological methods could provide a more complete picture of emotion in organization. Finally, we discuss some important points that should be carefully considered before using psychophysiological measurements in organization science.

Automated Curation of CNMF-E-Extracted ROI Spatial Footprints and Calcium Traces Using Open-Source AutoML Tools.

In vivo 1-photon (1p) calcium imaging is an increasingly prevalent method in behavioral neuroscience. Numerous analysis pipelines have been developed to improve the reliability and scalability of pre-processing and ROI extraction for these large calcium imaging datasets. Despite these advancements in pre-processing methods, manual curation of the extracted spatial footprints and calcium traces of neurons remains important for quality control. Here, we propose an additional semi-automated curation step for sorting spatial footprints and calcium traces from putative neurons extracted using the popular constrained non-negative matrixfactorization for microendoscopic data (CNMF-E) algorithm. We used the automated machine learning (AutoML) tools TPOT and AutoSklearn to generate classifiers to curate the extracted ROIs trained on a subset of human-labeled data. AutoSklearn produced the best performing classifier, achieving an F1 score >92% on the ground truth test dataset. This automated approach is a useful strategy for filtering ROIs with relatively few labeled data points and can be easily added to pre-existing pipelines currently using CNMF-E for ROI extraction.

Optimization of Efficient Neuron Models With Realistic Firing Dynamics. The Case of the Cerebellar Granule Cell.

Biologically relevant large-scale computational models currently represent one of the main methods in neuroscience for studying information processing primitives of brain areas. However, biologically realistic neuron models tend to be computationally heavy and thus prevent these models from being part of brain-area models including thousands or even millions of neurons. The cerebellar input layer represents a canonical example of large scale networks. In particular, the cerebellar granule cells, the most numerous cells in the whole mammalian brain, have been proposed as playing a pivotal role in the creation of somato-sensorial information representations. Enhanced burst frequency (spiking resonance) in the granule cells has been proposed as facilitating the input signal transmission at the theta-frequency band (4–12 Hz), but the functional role of this cell feature in the operation of the granular layer remains largely unclear. This study aims to develop a methodological pipeline for creating neuron models that maintain biological realism and computational efficiency whilst capturing essential aspects of single-neuron processing. Therefore, we selected a light computational neuron model template (the adaptive-exponential integrate-and-fire model), whose parameters were progressively refined using an automatic parameter tuning with evolutionary algorithms (EAs). The resulting point-neuron models are suitable for reproducing the main firing properties of a realistic granule cell from electrophysiological measurements, including the spiking resonance at the theta-frequency band, repetitive firing according to a specified intensity-frequency (I-F) curve and delayed firing under current-pulse stimulation. Interestingly, the proposed model also reproduced some other emergent properties (namely, silent at rest, rheobase and negligible adaptation under depolarizing currents) even though these properties were not set in the EA as a target in the fitness function (FF), proving that these features are compatible even in computationally simple models. The proposed methodology represents a valuable tool for adjusting AdEx models according to a FF defined in the spiking regime and based on biological data. These models are appropriate for future research of the functional implication of bursting resonance at the theta band in large-scale granular layer network models.

Functional MRI Signal Complexity Analysis Using Sample Entropy.

Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) is an immensely powerful method in neuroscience that uses the blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) signal to record and analyze neural activity in the brain. We examined the complexity of brain activity acquired by rs-fMRI to determine whether it exhibits variation across brain regions. In this study the complexity of regional brain activity was analyzed by calculating the sample entropy of 200 whole-brain BOLD volumes as well as of distinct brain networks, cortical regions, and subcortical regions of these brain volumes. It can be seen that different brain regions and networks exhibit distinctly different levels of entropy/complexity, and that entropy in the brain significantly differs between brains at rest and during task performance.

Real-Time Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging as a Tool for Neurofeedback

Abstract. Neurofeedback allows participants to voluntarily control their own brain activity. Consequently, neurofeedback is a potential intervention tool in diverse clinical domains. Different brain signals can be fed back to the neurofeedback users, such as the hemodynamic response of the brain using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) or electrophysiological brain signals as measured with electroencephalography (EEG). Each of these neuroscientific methods has its advantages and disadvantages. For instance, using fMRI all brain regions can be targeted, while in EEG and NIRS signals from deeper regions cannot be precisely differentiated. Hence, fMRI-based neurofeedback allows treatment of mental and physical diseases, which are associated with activation patterns in deeper brain regions. Until now, only the blood oxygen level dependent signal (BOLD) has been used as feedback signal in fMRI-based neurofeedback studies. However, we have started to develop a neurofeedback pipeline using a different fMRI signal, namely arterial spin labeling (ASL), which will be introduced in this article. ASL neurofeedback enables a direct modulation of the cerebral blood flow and, consequently, might improve rehabilitation of disorders caused by perfusion imbalance in the future.

Nöropazarlama ve Nöropazarlama Araçları: Teorik Bir Çerçeve

Tüketicilerin davranışlarını analiz etmek ve karar alma süreçlerini anlamak, pazarlama için en öncelikli konulardan biridir. Geleneksel pazarlama araştırmasında kullanılan (örn. anket, gözlem vb) araçlar yeterince objektif ve dürüst olmadıkları için yetersiz kalmaktadır. Nöropazarlama, nöro bilim, nöroekonomi, psikoloji ve pazarlamanın buluştuğu yeni bir alandır. Nöropazarlama, tüketici davranışlarını anlamak için nörobilimsel yöntemlerin uygulanmasıdır. Nöropazarlama, yüksek teknolojili nörogörüntüleme araçlarıyla (FMRI, EEG, MEG vb.) bir uyaran varlığında beynin bilinçaltı ve fizyolojik tepkilerini derinlemesine incelemektedir. Böylece tüketici karar alma mekanizmalarının ve davranışlarının altında yatan psikolojik ve nörolojik faktörler hakkında son derece güvenilir ve doğru bilgiler sunmaktadır. Nöropazarlama, etkili reklam, yeni ürün ve pazarlama stratejileri oluşturmada işletmeler için önemli bir rehberdir. Bu makalede amaç, nöropazarlama, nöropazarlamanın avantajları ve kısıtları, ayrıca nörö pazarlama araçları hakında detaylı bir kavramsal çerçeve sunmaktır.

SupFunSim: Spatial Filtering Toolbox for EEG

Brain activity pattern recognition from EEG or MEG signal analysis is one of the most important method in cognitive neuroscience. The supFunSim library is a new Matlab toolbox which generates accurate EEG forward model and implements a collection of spatial filters for EEG source reconstruction, including the linearly constrained minimum-variance (LCMV), eigenspace LCMV, nulling (NL), and minimum-variance pseudo-unbiased reduced-rank (MV-PURE) filters in various versions. It also enables source-level directed connectivity analysis using partial directed coherence (PDC) measure. The supFunSim library is based on the well-known FieldTrip toolbox for EEG and MEG analysis and is written using object-oriented programming paradigm. The resulting modularity of the toolbox enables its simple extensibility. This paper gives a complete overview of the toolbox from both developer and end-user perspectives, including description of the installation process and use cases.

Spike-Timing Dependent Plasticity Effect on the Temporal Patterning of Neural Synchronization.

Neural synchrony in the brain at rest is usually variable and intermittent, thus intervals of predominantly synchronized activity are interrupted by intervals of desynchronized activity. Prior studies suggested that this temporal structure of the weakly synchronous activity might be functionally significant: many short desynchronizations may be functionally different from few long desynchronizations even if the average synchrony level is the same. In this study, we used computational neuroscience methods to investigate the effects of spike-timing dependent plasticity (STDP) on the temporal patterns of synchronization in a simple model. We employed a small network of conductance-based model neurons that were connected via excitatory plastic synapses. The dynamics of this network was subjected to the time-series analysis methods used in prior experimental studies. We found that STDP could alter the synchronized dynamics in the network in several ways, depending on the time scale that plasticity acts on. However, in general, the action of STDP in the simple network considered here is to promote dynamics with short desynchronizations (i.e., dynamics reminiscent of that observed in experimental studies). Complex interplay of the cellular and synaptic dynamics may lead to the activity-dependent adjustment of synaptic strength in such a way as to facilitate experimentally observed short desynchronizations in the intermittently synchronized neural activity.

Towards an Individual Differences Perspective in Mindfulness Training Research: Theoretical and Empirical Considerations.

A growing body of research indicates that mindfulness training can have beneficial effects on critical aspects of psychological well-being, cognitive function, and brain health. Although these benefits have been generalized to the population level, individual variability in observed effects of mindfulness training has not been systematically investigated. Research on other similar forms of psychological intervention demonstrates that individual differences are prominent in terms of intervention responsiveness and outcomes. Furthermore, individual characteristics such as personality traits have been shown to play a crucial role in influencing the effects of intervention. In light of these lines of evidence, we review representative work on individual differences in mindfulness training and advocate for an individual difference perspective in mindfulness training research. We discuss relevant empirical evidence of individual differences potentially influencing behavioral outcomes of mindfulness training, focusing on both cognitive function and psychological well-being. Finally, theoretical considerations and potentially fruitful research strategies and directions for studying individual differences in mindfulness training are discussed, including those involving cognitive neuroscience methods.

Haptics and its Effect on Consumers' Intentions Using Neuroscientific Methods: Literature Review

The haptic properties of a product have mostly been underestimated with most studies focusing on visual aspects of objects. Nonetheless, in the last years, it has been found that tactile stimuli are in some cases even more important than the visual ones. However, the traditional paper-based surveys cannot fully and objectively examine their effects on consumers. Therefore, neuroscientific methods, which overcome these obstacles, are becoming more used but there is still only a small number of studies focusing on the effect of haptics in marketing. Using the keywords haptics, tactile input, EEG, fMRI and tactile, seven relevant studies have been found and used in this literature review, out of which four have used EEG and three fMRI. Thus, the main objective of this paper is to review the research that has been already conducted and to identify the areas in which further research should be made and the neuroscientific methods which could be used.

Two-Person Approaches to Studying Social Interaction in Psychiatry: Uses and Clinical Relevance.

Social interaction is ubiquitous in human society. The two-person approach—a new, powerful tool to study information exchange and social behaviors—aims to characterize the behavioral dynamics and neural mechanisms of real-time social interactions. In this review, we discuss the benefits of two-person approaches compared to those for conventional, single-person approaches. We describe measures and paradigms that model social interaction in three dimensions (3-D), including eye-to-eye, body-to-body, and brain-to-brain relationships. We then discuss how these two-person measures and paradigms are used in psychiatric conditions (e.g., autism, mood disorders, schizophrenia, borderline personality disorder, and psychotherapy). Furthermore, the advantages of a two-person approach (e.g., dual brain stimulation, multi-person neurofeedback) in clinical interventions are described. Finally, we discuss the methodological and translational challenges surrounding the application of two-person approaches in psychiatry, as well as prospects for future two-/multi-person studies. We conclude that two-person approaches serve as useful additions to the range of behavioral and neuroscientific methods available to assess social interaction in psychiatric settings, for both diagnostic techniques and complementary interventions.

Gene delivery to mid‐cervical dorsal root ganglia using AAV9

Delivery of viruses (e.g., adeno‐associated virus, AAV) or small molecule tracers (e.g., cholera toxin) to the pleural space between the lung and chest wall (i.e., “intrapleural delivery”) can effectively target phrenic motor neurons (see Mantilla et al., 2009, Journal of Neuroscience Methods). In ongoing experiments we are evaluating the effectiveness of intrapleural delivery of AAV serotype 9 (AAV9) for driving transgene expression in diaphragm sensory neurons in the cervical dorsal root ganglia (DRG) in C57/bl6 mice. Initial experiments used AAV9‐CBA‐GFP (titer: 1.42–8.11×1012 vg/ml) with relatively low total volume (6 μl of virus diluted in 6 μl of 1x PBS) for bilateral intrapleural injection; this approach failed to produce noticeable DRG transgene expression. We next tried larger unilateral doses (33 μl virus) diluted into 1x PBS to make a larger total volume (400 μl); this approach produced cervical DRG GFP expression, but positive DRG somata were sparse. Ultimately we utilized a higher titer AAV9‐CBA‐GFP (1.48×1013) at several doses: 33 μl, 66 μl, 100 μl, or 200 μl (n=2–3 per group). All doses were diluted up to 400 μl total volume in 1x PBS. After 6–8 weeks mice were perfused with 4% paraformaldehyde (PFA) and the central nervous system was harvested, post‐fixed in 4% PFA, and cryo‐protected in 30% sucrose. Brains and spinal cords were cryo‐sectioned (40 μm) and imaged using a fluorescence microscope for GFP expression. All the doses showed unequivocally positive GFP expression in afferent fibers in the mid‐cervical dorsal roots as well as DRG somata. Initial qualitative evaluation indicates a dose‐dependent increase in total cervical DRG labeling progressing from 33–100 μl, with no additional labeling at 200 μl. Interestingly, GFP expression was detected in very few phrenic motoneurons, even at the high doses. Our preliminary conclusion is that intrapleural injection of relatively large volumes of high titer AAV9 can drive transgene expression in mid‐cervical DRG neurons.Support or Funding InformationSupport: SPARC OT2 OD023854, F31 HL145831‐01 (MDS)

Neuroethics: Some Relevant Philosophical and Methodological Issues

I distinguish two main aspects of neuroethics in the article: neuroscientific studies of ethically significant properties of consciousness and the tasks of ethical regulation and ethical control of modern neuroscience studies of consciousness and the brain. Next, three topical issues are discussed regarding the designated aspects of neuroethics: (1) Ethical problems in the area of neuroscience research, called Brain-Reading, which deals with the determination of brain correlates of psychic phenomena and the deciphering of their neurodynamic codes. There are acute ethical and social issues questions about the legitimacy of the invasion of the subjective world of the personality, which require a thorough discussion. (2) Neuroscientific and genetic studies of the phenomenon of deception as a factor of interpersonal and social communications, emphasizes the importance of taking into account various forms of deception and the corresponding dispositional properties of consciousness, the experience of neuroscientific research of these properties and those dispositional properties that determine the installation of the truth and the realization of high moral qualities of a person is shown. The ethical legitimacy of exposing malicious fraud using neuroscientific methods, especially in cases of criminal acts, is shown. (3) Critically analyzed are attempts to deny free will through references to neuroscience research. The issue of free will is the key to ethics. The bankruptcy of several currently fashionable concepts that deny free will and thereby contribute to the spread of moral relativism is shown.

Attentional networks functioning and vigilance in expert musicians and non-musicians.

Previous literature has shown cognitive improvements related to musical training. Attention is one cognitive aspect in which musicians exhibit improvements compared to non-musicians. However, previous studies show inconsistent results regarding certain attentional processes, suggesting that benefits associated with musical training appear only in some processes. The present study aimedto investigate theattentional and vigilance abilities in expert musicians with a fine-grained measure: the ANTI-Vea (ANT for Interactions and Vigilance-executive and arousal components; Luna et al. in J Neurosci Methods 306:77-87, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneumeth.2018.05.011 , 2018). This task allows measuring the functioning of the three Posner and Petersen's networks (alerting, orienting, and executive control) along with two different components of vigilance (executive and arousal vigilance). Using propensity-score matching, 49 adult musicians (18-35years old) were matched in an extensive set of confounding variables with a control group of 49 non-musicians. Musicians showed advantages in processing speed and in the two components of vigilance, with some specific aspects of musicianship such as years of practice or years of lessons correlating with these measures. Although these results should be taken with caution, given its correlational nature, one possible explanation is that musical training can specifically enhance some aspects of attention. Nevertheless, our correlational design does not allow usto rule out other possibilities such as the presence of cognitive differences prior to the onset of training. Moreover, the advantages were observed in an extra-musical context, which suggests that musical training could transfer its benefits to cognitive processes loosely related to musical skills. The absence of effects in executive control, frequently reported in previous literature, is discussed based on our extensive control of confounds.

A retaining sphenoid and dura procedure in the rat to obtain intact pituitary-infundibulum-hypothalamus preparations

BackgroundThe histopathological study of brain tissue is a conventional method in neuroscience. However, procedures specifically developed to recover intact hypothalamic-pituitary brain specimens, are not available. New methodWe describe a detailed protocol for obtaining intact rat brain with pituitary-hypothalamus continuity through an intact infundibulum. The brain is collected via a ventral approach through removing the skull base. Membranous structures surrounding the hypothalamus-pituitary system can be preserved, including vasculature. ResultsWe report a retaining sphenoid and dura technique to obtain intact hypothalamic-pituitary brain preparations, and we confirm the practicability of this method. By combination of this technique with histological analysis or 3D brain tissue clearing and imaging methods, the functional morphology structure of the hypothalamus-pituitary can be further explored. Comparison with existing methodThe current procedure is limited in showing the connection between the hypothalamus and the pituitary. Our procedure effectively protects the integrity of the fragile infundibulum and thus prevents the pituitary from separating from the hypothalamus. ConclusionsWe present a convenient and practical approach to obtain intact hypothalamus-pituitary brain specimens for subsequent histopathological evaluation.

Short-Termism, Excessive Executive Compensation, and the Discounting Traits of Managers - by Using fMRI Experiment

It can be said that short-termism and excessive executive compensation are drawing critical and negative attention in recent years, judging from famous politician's lecture and the passage of law forcing to publicly disclose the ratio of the compensation of the chief executive officer (CEO) to the median compensation of that company's employees. We assume that these management problems are sharpened by human instinctive discounting behavior. By brain experiment of discounting behavior (neuro-science method), we scientifically reveal that stimuli like globalization mobilize new brain parts (precuneus, IPL, TPJ), sharpen human discounting behavior and in turn sharpen the management problems. The research results show that human beings predict other people's discounting behavior more sharply than their own by additionally activating new parts of brain. This in turn will sharpen their discount behavior. This chain of discounting behavior and activation of new brain parts becomes prominent in the globalization of economies involving more strangers. In order to stop the sharpening of management problems, improvement policies counter to human instincts become necessary. Our research results are closely related to resolve some of the problems by using accounting institutions. For example, since the institutionalization of the quarterly report promotes the short-termism, its rectification is necessary. Also, in order to correct the distortion of corporate compensation structure, the SEC oversees the disclosure of remuneration for middle-ranking worker and is seeking full-fledged institutionalization. Implementation of these accounting policies are strongly supported by our research results.

A121 SILENCING ENTERIC SENSORY NEURONS ABOLISHES THE EXCITATORY EFFECT OF SERTRALINE ON VAGAL AFFERENTS

Abstract Background Two thirds of vagal afferents supplying the small intestine terminate on intrinsic primary afferent neurons (IPANs) of the enteric nervous system via intraganglionic laminar endings (IGLEs) rather than the luminal epithelium (FASEB J, 28, 3064–3074, 2014). The IPAN to IGLE connection forms a functional intramural sensory synapse within the myenteric plexus. We have recently shown (Sci Rep, 9, 14290, 2019) that the antidepressant behavioural effects of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are dependent on the vagus nerve and that intraluminal application of the SSRIs fluoxetine and sertraline increase vagal afferent firing rate in vitro. Aims We hypothesize that the vagal afferent response to intraluminal sertraline is mediated by IPAN to IGLE sensory signaling. Methods Mesenteric nerve recordings were performed using 2–3 cm jejunal segments and attached mesentery from 6–8 weeks old male Balb/c mice. Jejunal tissue was pinned out and dissected in a petri dish of Krebs to remove excess mesentery to isolate the mesenteric nerve bundle. Multi-unit electrical activity was recorded by patch-clamp electrode using an amplifier and signal converter by sucking onto the mesenteric nerve bundle with a glass micropipette. Baseline firing was recorded for 30 mins during luminal Krebs perfusion. The vagal afferent firing response to sertraline (10 µM) was measured in the absence or presence of 5 µM of the intermediate conductance calcium-dependent (IKCa) channel opener 5,6-dichloro-1-ethyl-1,3-dihydro-2H-benzimidazole-2-one (DCEBIO) to the serosa to selectively silence IPANs. Dataview software (J Neuroscience Methods, 185, 151, 2009) was used to isolate single unit firing post-hoc. Vagal fibre action potentials were identified by response to CCK. Results Intraluminal sertraline decreased the mean vagal interspike interval (increased vagal firing frequency) by 29% (p = 0.008) compared to Krebs control (N = 15 fibres). In contrast, addition of luminal sertraline in the presence of DCEBIO increased mean vagal interspike interval by 48% (p = 0.0103) compared to Krebs control (N = 12 fibres). Serosal addition of the N-type Ca2+ channel blocker w-Conotoxin GVIA simultaneously with luminal sertraline increased the mean vagal interspike interval by 12% (p = 0.0282) compared to Krebs control (N = 7 fibres). Conclusions Silencing of myenteric IPANs to vagus neurotransmission blocked excitatory response of vagal afferent fibres to intraluminal sertraline. Blocking myenteric neurotransmission reduced the vagus excitatory response to sertraline by more than 50%. These results suggest that the therapeutically necessary vagus nerve stimulation by sertraline involves activation of the myenteric intramural sensory synapse. Funding Agencies NSERC, OGS

Inter-brain Synchronization in the Practice of Tibetan Monastic Debate

ObjectivesAlthough mindfulness meditation is the familiar and researched form of mental training derived from Buddhism, it represents but one form of practice. Monastic debate is an interactive and dyadic analytical meditation practice that originates from the Tibetan Buddhist tradition where monastics seek to jointly deepen their understanding of complicated philosophical issues. To date, monastic debate and analytic meditation have yet to be examined in the context of scientific investigation.MethodsIn the current study, we examined the neural correlates of this analytical meditation practice by means of hyperscanning electroencephalography, a method well-suited for examining social interactions.ResultsConsistent with the idea that analytical meditation helps to train concentration, we observed that over the course of the debate, mid-frontal theta oscillations—a correlate of absorption—increased significantly. This increase was stronger for more experienced monks as compared with monks at the beginning of their education. In addition, we found evidence for increases in synchrony in frontal alpha oscillations between paired debaters during moments of agreement as compared with disagreement on a set of premises.ConclusionsTogether, these findings provide an initial understanding of Tibetan monastic debate and analytical meditation using neuroscientific methods.

World chemical sales by region: EU market share drops significantly as emerging markets surge

Consumers' food choices are often driven by reasons of which consumers are not fully aware. Decision-making about food is influenced by a complex set of emotions, feelings, attitudes, and values that are impossible to assess simply by asking consumers their opinions. Indeed, traditional techniques, such as self-reports or interviews, mainly allow the measurement of conscious and rational reactions to a product or advertising. Recently, there has been a rapidly growing interest in the multidisciplinary field of “neuromarketing,” which takes advantage of neuroscientific techniques to study consumer behavior.This discipline applies neuroscientific methods and tools that allow the measurement of consumers' emotional and spontaneous reactions in a more objective and observable way. The aim of this paper is (a) to describe neuromarketing's underlying assumptions, techniques, and the advantages of this perspective, examining the scientific literature on the use of neuromarketing in food studies; and (b) to suggest best practices to apply this novel approach in the food marketing domain, with a specific focus on non-invasive methods.Finally, although the perception of nutritional elements has already been explored, the health content of labels, the presence of additives, and the evaluation of the information conveyed by food packaging remain other possible elements of interest in future food neuromarketing research.