Anthropological Methods Research Articles

Mechanisms of young professional engagement in health policy development: a cultural domain approach.

Engagement in public health policy development is critical to forward-thinking public health policy. There is a robust empirical case to support the prospect of the engagement of young adults in civic and research efforts. However, the literature is limited in conceptualizing the mechanisms of engagement in health policy development from the perspective of young adults. This study applied the concepts and methods of cognitive anthropology to identify the mechanisms of engagement in health policy development from the perspective of young people. Online elicitation and cognitive domain analysis were applied to collect and analyze the data. Students enrolled in a public health leadership class at a large United States southeastern university were invited to participate in an online discussion. Saturation was achieved after the eighth submission. Data were analyzed qualitatively for repetition and recurrence and quantitatively to assess their cultural saliency. Thirty-two students submitted 147 individual engagement ideas. The analysis resulted in 24 unique mechanisms organized into 10 clusters. The most prominent engagement mechanisms included education, peer activities, advocacy, direct involvement, and activism. In the dynamic landscape of public health, active involvement in health policy development presents a crucial pathway for leadership among young professionals. The application of cognitive anthropology methods contributes to the emerging science of engagement and allows to identify and measure consensus around the pathways for engagement in health policy development among young professionals.

The Geographical and Social Stratification of Judeo-Georgian

Abstract This article focuses on the variation found within Judeo-Georgian as it correlates with predetermined geographical and social categories and explores the changes it underwent as spoken by the small Jewish community remaining in Georgia and, later, as a consequence of contacts with other languages, in a new linguistic environment in Israel. The research is based on the theories and methods of variationist sociolinguistics and linguistic anthropology. Social and geographical factors were instrumental in shaping linguistic variation in Judeo-Georgian as one of the key identity markers of Georgian Jews. Geographical, social, and religious dimensions of Judeo-Georgian are discussed in relation to linguistic variables. The research builds on Sarah Bunin Benor’s (2008) distinctive linguistic repertoire approach to Jewish languages. The varieties of Judeo-Georgian spoken in Georgia were based on local/regional dialects but differed from them through the use of Hebraisms/Aramaisms, displaced dialectisms, and archaisms. Upper-class Jews largely avoided using Judeo-Georgian, middle-class Jews used it in certain speech situations, and for lower-class Jews, it was the only means of communication. Regional and social peculiarities of Judeo-Georgian, as spoken in different parts of Georgia, as well as the changes caused by immigration, are manifest in the speech varieties spoken by Georgian Jewry in Israel.

From Third Place: Illustrations and Observations of Connection in the Inner City

From Third Place is a practice-led project that explores the concept of third place in relation to society of the inner city, specifically Auckland CBD, using the traditional cultural anthropological methods of fieldwork and observational drawing to explore third places in Auckland. This project addresses the concept of third place and its role within society and the individual, reflecting on how we connect within our environment. This project is heavily influenced by my previous degree in cultural anthropology and art history. The inquiry is explored through the publication in three chapters of observational illustrations which focuses on the main third places used in everyday life by residents of Auckland CBD; cafes, parks, and pubs. The resulting publication is a series of snapshots of life in the city. The aims of this project is to explore connection of individuals in the city and celebrate the third places that facilitate them.

Some anthropological characteristics of ancient (according to fine art sources) and modern Greeks

Introduction. Greek sculpture and vase painting, despite the comprehensive study of specialists in many fields of science, can represent a source of information for historical and biological anthropology. The vase painting and sculpture of the ancient Greeks has been studied in the context of ethnic and biological continuity with the modern Greek population. Materials and methods. A total of 1020 vases (2379 people) and 174 reliefs (300 people) were studied. Two characteristics were studied – the development of tertiary hair growth (beard growth) and the nature of the head hair of ancient and modern Greeks. The material was collected from online sources and relevant literature, and processed according to anthropological methods. The composite portrait according to F. Galton method in digital format has been used to visualize morphological variability. Results and discussion. Modern Greeks (the middle total type of the population) are characterized by straight or lightly wavy head hair (middle score 1.41) and most often above middle or heavy beard growth (middle score 3.38). The proportion of straight and wavy hair in all vase painting samples is approximately the same, with wavy hair significantly predominant. The middle scores for hair nature and beard growth based on relief funeral images of ancient Greeks in our samples turned out to be significantly higher than for modern Greeks and amounted to: for nature of the hair – 2,62 points for classical time and 2,81 points for late classical and hellenistic times, for beard growth – 4,38 points and 4,30 points, respectively. Conclusion. Despite the change in artistic forms of conveying morphological features during the transition from archaic to classical times, in Greek vase painting and sculpture the representation of the heavy beard growth and the wavy nature of head hair was preserved, which, according to the authors, may be a real reflection of the typical morphological characteristics of the group.

Казахская народная музыка в саксофонных произведениях композиторов Казахстана

This article is about studying the saxophone works of Kazakh composers Arthur Orenburgsky, Alibi Abdinurov and Yulia Lebedeva, based on Kazakh folk music. These compositions have become an important part of the performing and pedagogical practice of saxophonists in Kazakhstan, and they are regularly performed at major concert venues, festivals and competitions. The purpose of the work is to study the process of creating compositions, their role in the formation of the national repertoire and the development of performing practice, as well as to identify the characteristic features in style and performance technique.The authors use various methods in their research: complex approach, including analytical and historical that includes collection and exploration of archival material, as well as anthropological method like interviews with Kazakh composers and teachers of saxophone class of the Kurmangazy Kazakh National Conservatory.The study revealed the main musical characteristics of saxophone compositions corresponding to Kazakh traditional music: metrical freedom, improvisation, uniqueness of rhythm, shaping and timbre. The studied works represent the authors’ reinterpretation of traditional primary sources, through imitation of rhythmic elements of dombra playing and sound production characteristic of folk wind instruments. These elements define the national color in music and can be considered as “ethnic identity”.From a practical point of view, this work will be useful for musicians, teachers and researchers interested in the synthesis of folk and contemporary music, unique stylistic features and new possibilities of using the saxophone in Kazakh musical culture.

Representation of Popular Islamic Movements on Social Media: A Study of the Hashtag #LogIndiCloseTheDoor

This article an discusses the Ramadan podcast series Hashtag #LogIndiCloseTheDoor as an example of the Popular Islamic Movement on social media. The series was a huge hit even though it dealt with a delicate subject. It is impossible to consider this truth to be a phenomenon deserving of the widespread success of social media material. This article is a qualitative study employing Talal Asad's Islamic Anthropology method. According to the article's conclusion, the Popular Islam Movement is a group of middle-class Muslims, particularly those in their millennial years, who are using modern and popular culture as a means of self-actualization and self-study. The media portrays him in two ways: dakwahtainment and religiotainment. Ramadan's audio series #LogIndiCloseTheDoor is one of them. The Islamic pretext Raḥmatan lil 'Ālamīn (a mercy to all creation) serves as the basis for the television show. The discussion that goes along with this series focuses on inclusivism in religion as well as the commoditization and commodification of religion. These discourses were communicated and developed into a new religious paradigm by way of the power relations network that Deddy Corbuzier, Habib Ja'far Hussein, and Leonardo da Vinci constructed. This essay contends that the #LogIndiCloseTheDoor Ramadan Hashtag audio series, which combines modern and Islamic ideals, transforms the initially conservative, restrictive, and inflexible perception of Islam into one that is inclusive, tolerant, and dynamic.

New Pathway for Management Studies in China: Exploring Qualitative Research Methods of Business Anthropology

Through an inventory of the existing literature body on Chinese management studies, this paper attempts to present a critical review of the phenomenon that the management studies in contemporary China over-rely on quantitative research methodology. It endeavors to demonstrate that the nature of scientific research is to innovate by seeking truth and, therefore, should not be restricted by quantitative research methods. Improve the effectiveness of academic analyses, it suggests that the scholars in China need to positively adapt the anthropological methodologies to conduct management studies and enhance the process of the localization of management science in the country. It is designed to broaden the approaches toward Chinese management studies by introducing business anthropological methods to Chinese management scholars. It adopts a comparative and case study methodology to demonstrate the limitations of quantitative methods and illustrate the effectiveness of business anthropological approaches for management studies in the Chinese context. The existing literature body demonstrates that excessive quantitative research approaches are utilized in current management studies, while scholars in China primarily ignore the effectiveness of qualitative methods. The necessity for further understanding qualitative research methods in management studies has been recognized more recently by Chinese scholars. They tend to agree that qualitative and quantitative research methodologies are merely different approaches, while the results are the same. One of the compelling new paths to improving management studies and practices is to apply anthropological research methods so that management theory in China can better explain actual human responses and factors that influence their behaviors. Anthropology has always been employed for practical applications. In addition, anthropological methods can enlarge the approaches to management studies and widen the scope for scholars to conduct their research. The combination of anthropology and management will accelerate the localization of management studies and, accordingly, speed up the systematic establishment of Chinese management theory to promote management practices in modern China. Business anthropology is emerging among some outstanding qualitative research methods in Western management studies. On the other hand, China's management science community is still a little behind in this respect. This paper is a pilot study to elaborate on business anthropology and its contribution to specific areas in management studies, such as marketing management, product design, and entrepreneurship in the Chinese context.

Sex estimation using long bones in the largest burial site of the Copper Age: Linear discriminant analysis and random forest

Sex estimation of the individuals in a sample is fundamental for any bioarchaeological study to define a particular demographic assemblage or to classify isolated remains. Long bones are an excellent alternative for sex estimation when the most dimorphic anatomical parts are not preserved or are highly altered. Here we propose a set of discriminant functions and classification models to estimate the sex of prehistoric individuals using linear discriminant analysis and machine learning approaches. Different osteometric variables were taken from the humeri, ulnae, radii, femurs and tibias of a sample of 109 articulated skeletons buried in the collective tomb of Camino del Molino (Region of Murcia, SE-Spain), dated to the 3rd millennium BC. Sex was estimated based on standard anthropological methods and ancient DNA analysis of a control sample. Fifty-two discriminant functions with prediction thresholds higher than 0.8 on the ROC curve were obtained using independent (22) and combined variables (30). The best LDA models for sex prediction were those based on proximal epiphyseal widths or their combination with other variables, reaching values close to 0.98 on the ROC curve. The random forest-based model obtained an accuracy of 0.94 and confirmed the importance of epiphyseal widths in sex classification. This analysis is more comprehensive than univariate LDA, as it allows for ranking the importance of bones in sex discrimination and considers correlations between long bones rather than treating them as independent observations. In contrast, applying LDA to each bone makes it easier to predict the sex of other coeval collections that do not have such a complete sample. This work aims to overcome the scarcity of methods that can be applied to sex estimation of the large volume of isolated remains from Camino del Molino and for other Mediterranean skeletal series from the Late Prehistory with high biological affinity and that share similar environmental conditions.

Village Self-Government in the Period 1944-1955 in an Anthropological Perspective: The Example of the Village of Dobri Do

Rural self-government is an insufficiently researched topic in domestic and foreign anthropological literature. What is more, the extent to which archives of local self-government bodies can be useful as sources for anthropological research has not been sufficiently studied. For this reason, an attempt was made to provide a contribution to a better understanding of these scientific issues on the example of the village of Dobri Do in the vicinity of Pirot, and on the basis of material in the Historical Archive of Pirot that refers to the work of the Local People's Committee in this village. The period after the Second World War was chosen, due to the state of the materials in the archival collections and the fact that the period was marked by numerous processes that highlighted scientific problems more clearly. It started from the assumption that the local self-government, as a mediator between the rural community and state authorities, was primarily directed towards protecting the interests of the rural community itself. The analysis showed that MNO archives can be very useful sources, and that they can be combined with classical anthropological research methods (participant observation, interview, biographical method). Nevertheless, a critical attitude must be taken towards this archival material, because it is incomplete, insufficiently conscientiously collected and organized. Based on the available material, it is possible to see many questions that have not been raised so far about the relationship between the local community and state institutions. Further research will show to what extent it is possible to improve the use of this material within ethnological and anthropological research.

Huma BetHuma Betang-Based Resolution of Mining Land Conflictsang Based Mining Land Conflict Resolution

This study aimed to explore local wisdom treasures related to the study of legal culture which was not widely known by the public. This study used a mix of anthropological and juridical philosophical methods. It used the socio-legal study approach conducted through direct exploration and structured interviews. Results showed that Dayak Bakumpai indigenous people highly uphold the inclusive cultural principles contained in the Huma Betang philosophies. One of the philosophies was the resolution of mining land conflicts, influenced by the culture’s positive values. This value was adopted from an inclusive culture in the Belom Bahadat values that are upheld by the Bakumpai Dayak community. Meanwhile, conflict resolution was carried out through "Bahandep Bahapakat Rakat", which is a practice of helping each other in deliberations. This is so that the headman or local traditional leader can help people return to harmony.

Identification of Social Status through Grave Goods Using a Biocultural Approach in Interpreting the Alpine Context of Borca Di Cadore, Belluno, Veneto, Italy (18th–19th Centuries)

The cemetery of the Church of Santi Simone e Giuda in Borca di Cadore (Belluno province, Veneto region, Italy) was excavated between 2021 and 2023 as part of an archaeological intervention. The excavation area yielded a total of 21 graves dating back to the 18th–19th century; this was intriguing due to the presence of grave goods and taphonomic indicators that allowed these burials to be interpreted as clothed burials. This contribution examines 14 of the 21 graves, representing the available sample considering preservation conditions. Fieldwork was carried out through close synergy between archaeological and anthropological methodologies, involving careful excavation to verify funerary rituals through taphonomic data analysis. Anthropological methods were applied to determine the biological profile of the individuals, while aspects related to their health status were investigated through paleopathological analyses. Data obtained from field and laboratory observations were cross-referenced with historical and anthropological-cultural data from bibliographic and archival research. Reconstructing the social status of the deceased within the burial context is crucial for understanding the social and cultural dynamics of past populations, achievable only through a biocultural approach integrating information from archaeology, cultural anthropology, and bioarchaeology. Modern burial contexts offer privileged realities due to abundant historical and anthropological-cultural documentation, allowing for a more precise contextualization of bioarchaeological findings with significant support from documentary sources. Studies applied to these periods closer to the present enable the continuous refinement of an investigative method attentive to the synergy of different aspects of biocultural research, enhancing the importance of this approach in reconstructing the life histories of populations.

Cross-cultural visual anthropology: Beyond repatriation, exploring indigenous and non-indigenous exchanges

Collaboration is critical concept in Arctic anthropology, in which indigenous people participate not just as research subjects but as collaborative partners in advancing scientific knowledge. The trans-disciplinary approach develops new conceptual, theoretical, and methodological innovations that transcend discipline-specific boundaries. Such innovations facilitate engagement between indigenous and non-indigenous stakeholders in addressing real-world challenges. This paper documents several Siberian ethnography exhibitions organized by the authors and evaluates their anthropological and social significance. Historically, anthropological discourse has championed using visual materials as tools for cultural interventions aimed at societal transformation. Building upon this foundation, this study explores the challenges of both the Russian Arctic and Asian contexts. The article guides the readers to reconsider conventional anthropological perspectives and methods of collaborating both with the indigenous and non-indigenous partners. By outlining the authors experiences in involving local stakeholders across different countries in these exhibitions, they illuminate the impact of the exhibitions on diverse cultural contexts. As cross-cultural visual anthropology endeavors, the exhibits redefine the meaning of ethnographical snapshots as scientific knowledge and go beyond repatriating indigenous cultures or sharing research outcomes with the broader society. The cross-cultural exhibition is becoming a novel research modality and a tool for fostering social interactions.

CT-Analysis and Facial Reconstruction of Children Mummy from Cerro La Horca (Barranca District, Peru)

The aim of the study was a paleoradiological analysis of one of the few completely preserved pre-Columbian child mummies from the Barranca Valley region. The goal also included an attempt to reconstruction of the antemortem appearance of the face. The mummy comes from the pre-Columbian cemetery of Cerro la Horca, located in the Fortaleza River Valley. This cemetery has been subjected to systematic looting over the years. The activities of grave robbers resulted not only in the destruction of grave contexts and material culture relics, but also in the destruction of the bodies of the pre-Columbian inhabitants of the valley buried in the cemetery. The examined mummy, to our knowledge, is the only completely preserved body from this archaeological site. The analysis used conventional computed tomography, as well as standard anthropological methods and facial reconstruction techniques. The age at the time of the death was estimated at 2 to 3 years. The light color of a child’s hair suggests the presence of protein deficits known as kwashiorkor. The condition is most common after weaning and switching to carbohydrate-rich foods. The facial reconstruction performed allowed the reconstruction of the child’s life-like appearance and is the first reconstruction made for mummified remains from the area.

Fairy Tales, Madness and Total War

Abstract This paper sets in context the melodramatic conclusion to R. G. Collingwood’s The Principles of Art (1938) and his exceptional praise of T. S. Eliot’s The Waste Land (1922). I suggest that the background to this conclusion, with its emphasis on the role of emotion in human agency, must embrace an extraordinary series of essays composed in the mid nineteen-thirties, and which until their publication in 2005 were known as the “folktale manuscripts.” Collingwood’s critique of anthropological method in these essays, with his discussions of ritual, magic and the alleged madness of the so-called “savage mind,” feed into the anxieties about civilization’s condition felt through his reception of Eliot’s poetical diagnosis, and they are developed in Collingwood’s own compelling essay of 1936, “Mad Goes Mad.” The essay is Collingwood’s account of a disease of mind which Art, in the event, proved powerless to cure.

Identifying suicidal risk factors in the French Overseas Territories with multimethod psychological autopsy (AUTOPSOM): a mixed-methods study protocol

IntroductionUnderstanding suicide in more isolated territories is a challenge because of the entanglement of cultural identity with historical, geographical and sociocultural specificities. This knowledge is a necessary precondition for the...

Environmental Theology and Worship Teaching of Lombok Wetu Telu Old Manuscripts

This study aims to explore the intertwining of two Islamic teachings, namely environmental values and worship practice in three old manuscripts popular among Wetu Telu people in North Lombok. It questions how the three, Serat Rengganis, Usada Rara, and Tuḥfah al-Mursalāh ilā Rūḥ an-Nabī deliver the teaching through its contents about the two themes. Those manuscripts are well known and routinely recited among Wetu Telu in Bayan, a village that routinely holds a ritual called pepaosan. The anthropological method used in this paper relies on primary data through in-depth observation, interviews with relevant parties, as well as manuscript content mapping. The finding shows that environmental values and worship teaching among Wetu Telu in North Lombok are mostly based on those manuscripts with Serat Rengganis as the mostly referred and popular one. The manuscripts likely use metaphors to deliver the teaching which makes it hard to understand the meaning without attending the pepaosan to listen to explanations from the experts. Integration of both teachings is mainly clear from how Wetu Telu people are supposed to behave well to God, fellow humans, and nature. Both individual and social worship of Wetu Telu, like ṣalāt (prayer) and al-ḥajj (pilgrimage), also indicate how the three old manuscripts still play an important role within the community.

Традиції та трансформації народного одягу українців з с. Колодрібка Заліщицької міської громади Чортківського району Тернопільської області впродовж 60-х рр. 20 ст. – 20-х рр. 21 ст.

The purpose of the article is to research and analyze the traditions and transformations of the constituent elements of the folk formations of the western Podillia, using the example of Ukrainians from the village of Kolodribka, Zalishchytska urban community, Chortkiv district, Ternopil region, on the basis of studied historiography, museum sources of information, and expedition materials collected by the author in July 2022. The main trends in changes in the cut, materials and decoration of the components of the body, belt, shoulder and upper both women's and men's clothing, shoes, hats, jewelry, belts and accessories, embroidery techniques, predominant ornamental motifs and colors, primarily embroidered shirts in the 60s of the 20th century – 20s of the 21th century. The methodology of the study of narrow local features and the modern state of national dress in the structure of the material and spiritual culture of Ukrainians of Western Podillia covers a systematic approach, the principles of historicism and objectivity, as well as general scientific (historical, analysis and synthesis, comparative and terminological), historical (historiographical analysis, problematic - chronological, ethnospatial definition), ethnological (direct observation, photo and video recording of phenomena, typological analysis, individual survey and field research) and interdisciplinary (descriptive, methods of museum source studies and visual anthropology) methods. Scientific novelty. In the course of the historical and cultural development of the Podillia region, local features of all components of folk costumes have developed. In addition, each administrative district of one or another local area of Podillia, and often even a separate village, were distinguished by the originality of the methods of cutting, making and decorating clothes and forming an ensemble complex in general. Therefore, if the general regional features of the traditional clothing of the local population have been more or less studied by scientists, then the local and the local and zonal characteristics of the Podillia costume and their transformations remain insufficiently studied to this day. This fact emphasizes the relevance and necessity of implementing the defined problem of the article. Conclusions. An assessment of the value orientations of the local population in the preservation, modification and continuation of the traditions of wearing individual clothing components and the use of Ukrainian ornamentation in view of its symbolism in the decoration of clothing for the purpose of self-identification as a representative of the Ukrainian nation in general and a separate ethnic group in particular, specifically through clothing, is provided. The process of increasing the popularization of ethnic products in the wardrobe of Ukrainians is highlighted and the integration of folk ornamental motifs into modern style as a result of awareness of the depth of Ukrainian culture and getting rid of the label of inferiority.

A review of the contributions of forensic archaeology and anthropology to the process of disaster victim identification.

Forensic archaeology and anthropology have developed significantly over past decades and now provide considerable assistance to the investigation process of disaster victim recovery and identification. In what are often chaotic death and crime scenes, the formal process of utilizing archaeological methods can bring control, order, and ensure systematic search. Procedures assist in defining scene extent, locating victims and evidence, rule out areas for consideration, and provide standardized recording and quality assurance through dedicated use of standardized forms (pro formas). Combined archaeological and anthropological search methods maximize opportunities to recovery the missing through identifying remains, mapping distributions, and providing accounting of victims at the scene. Anthropological assistance in examinations contributes to individual assessment, resolving commingling and fragmentation issues, and utilizing DNA sampling methods and matching data to reassociate and account for the missing. Utilization of archaeology, anthropology, and DNA matching data provides scope to review crime scene recovery and determine requirements and potential for further survey and retrieval. Adopting the most suitable methods for a particular context can maximize recovery, efficiency, and resource use. Case studies demonstrate the utility of archaeological methods in a range of scenarios. They exemplify the success of multidisciplinary analysis in providing evidence of the sequence of events, the timing of events, the impact of taphonomic processes, the location and accounting of victims, and the demonstration of systematic scene search. The considerations provided in this article, utilizing archaeology and anthropology processes, may assist investigators in planning and implementing responses to mass fatalities.

Rationalism without Representationalism: Deleuze, Whitehead, and the Decolonization of Philosophy, with Lessons from Anthropology’s Ontological Turn

ABSTRACT One way of characterizing the ontological turn in anthropology is the effort to transform philosophical anthropology into anthropological philosophy—or anthropology into philosophy. This effort proceeds upon the premise that to critique philosophical representationalism is to critique the entire rationalist enterprise. It is as a result of this coupling that some OTers suggest that a permanently decolonized philosophy becomes indistinguishable from post-representationalist anthropology. Curiously, it is by thinking with Gilles Deleuze that they conclude, on the one hand, that to decolonize anthropology is to de-representationalize it, and, on the other, that to decolonize philosophy is therefore to anthropologize it (since, on their logic, de-representationalizing means de-philosophizing). To turn to ontology means “thinking immanence” not, pace Deleuze, as philosophy, but beyond philosophy. This article argues that the supersessionist claim is incoherent precisely insofar as this coupling is unwarranted. To provide a counterinstance, the article suggests how thinking with Alfred North Whitehead decouples the critique of representationalism from the critique of rationalism. One implication of this work is to model a speculative philosophy that can be responsive to postcolonial concerns about representationalism without thereby becoming functionally indistinct from anthropological method.

The Return of the Warrior: Combining Anthropology, Imaging Advances, and Art in Reconstructing the Face of the Early Medieval Skeleton

Reconstructing the face from the skull is important not only for forensic identification but also as a tool that can provide insight into the appearance of individuals from past populations. It requires a multidisciplinary approach that combines anthropological knowledge, advanced imaging methods, and artistic skills. In the present study, we demonstrate this process on the skull of an early medieval warrior from Croatia. The skeletal remains were prepared and scanned using multi-slice computed tomography (MSCT) and examined using standard anthropological and radiological methods. The analysis revealed that the remains belonged to a 35–45-year-old male individual who had suffered severe cranial trauma, probably causing his death. From MSCT images, we reconstructed a three-dimensional (3D) model of the skull, on which we digitally positioned cylinders demarking the soft tissue thickness and created the face with a realistic texture. A 3D model of the face was then optimized, printed, and used to produce a clay model. Sculpturing techniques added skin textures and facial features with scars and trauma manifestations. Finally, after constructing a plaster model, the model was painted and refined by adding fine details like eyes and hair, and it was prepared for presentation in the form of a sculpture.