Environmental Risk Assessment Methodology Research Articles

Risk of rainfall caused leaching from bio-composite material based building façades into the aquatic environment

The increasing focus on sustainability and circularity is driving the global production of environmentally friendly products. The Netherlands started producing new bio-composite materials which are created by reclaiming resources from various sectors of the water industry. These materials can be used for a variety of applications including façade elements in buildings. However, their potential environmental impact, particularly with regard to leaching of potentially harmful substances into surface water, necessitates further evaluation. To address this issue, a systematic environmental risk assessment methodology combined with novel experimental data is presented here. To collect this data, façade panels made of two different bio-composite materials were first subjected to a series of laboratory tests, including analysis in both new and weathered forms, the latter subject to a cyclic UV radiation and high humidity, in order to simulate the effects of aging. Leaching tests were then conducted to determine the potential release of specific chemical substances such as heavy metals and resin compounds, under two different rainfall conditions (every day and more extreme). The data generated this way was used to perform the risk assessment using the existing European ERA framework. The results obtained reveal different leaching behaviour of the new and weathered samples, as well as between the two analysed bio-composite materials, depending on the rain intensity. To overcome the uncertainties caused by the limited input data, a sensitivity analysis was carried out whereby leaching concentrations and rainfall intensities were varied and their influence on the environmental risk was assessed. The results obtained demonstrated that, despite some variability, both materials appear safe to use, i.e., with estimated risks below the established safety threshold. While these findings provide a preliminary indication, they are based on laboratory conditions and assumptions hence further field studies are recommended to obtain more definitive conclusions.

Integrating Environmental and Social Dimensions with Science-Based Knowledge for a Sustainable Pesticides Management—A Project of Lombardy Region in Italy

Achieving a change towards the sustainable use and management of pesticides requires a multiple perspective approach that combines traditional knowledge, experience of different local stakeholders, scientific expertise, and context-specific data to provide useful and understandable information for the target farmers. In this paper, the incorporation of the information on environmental and social dimensions into a “science-based” pesticide management practice is presented as an example of a replicable multidisciplinary approach. This approach depicts the importance of the context-specific scenario analysis and of the involvement of farmers starting from their practices and their knowledge. A diverse range of engagement initiatives have been adopted to consult, inform, and involve the community. Tools as target guidelines of good practices, self-evaluation checklists, and a user-friendly indicator that considers social, environmental, and territorial parameters of the specific area, gained a lot of interest and trust and have proven to be useful in disseminating the methodology of environmental risk assessment to farmers, supporting and assisting them in the comparison of different phytosanitary strategies at farm scale to identify weaknesses in their current pesticide management at farm level and to find corresponding corrective actions. The experience also highlighted the importance of the role of properly trained and informed advisors.

Chemical Risk Assessment in a Selected Romanian Stainless Steel Processing Company

Abstract The production and use of chemicals are continuously increasing worldwide. For example, the global output of chemicals increased approximately 12 times between 1970 and 2020. The burden of disease attributable to exposure to chemicals is significant. World Health Organization estimates that globally, about 5 million deaths and 90 million disability - adjusted life years are attributable to occupational, environmental exposure and management. Public authorities and employers need access to reliable information on chemicals and practical, widely-accepted risk assessment methods in order to effectively control and minimize this threat. To support the management of chemical substances in small and mediumsized enterprises, the UK Health and Safety Executive developed the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Essentials (COSHH Essentials), a control banding technique that determines the management method by assigning the qualitative work environment characteristics of the enterprises to a hazard and exposure prediction band. Qualitative tools were used for assessing the risk of these chemicals, creating solutions, and implementing control measures in various industrial fields. The present paper synthesizes the results of an extensive research study, dedicated to the evaluation of chemical risks within a Romanian company which has as object of activity the mechanical processing of steel laminates and their treatment by methods of electrochemical deposition of hard chromium / electrochemical nickel plating. The application of the simplified health, safety and environmental risk assessment methodology developed by the French National Security Research Institute (INRS) was considered to be the most appropriate in the preliminary phase of identifying and prioritizing the risks associated with chemicals used in technological processes in selected company. Based on the obtained results, the prevention and protection plan regarding the chemical risks was elaborated, the implementation of which led to the reduction of the workers’ exposure and to the minimization of the probability and severity of the potential consequences.

Environmental Risk Assessment for Exploration and Extraction Processes of Unconventional Hydrocarbon Deposits of Shale Gas and Tight Gas: Pomeranian and Carpathian Region Case Study as Largest Onshore Oilfields

Shale gas and tight gas exploration and extraction processes create potential threats to the environment. In Poland, no comprehensive guidelines for environmental risk assessment have been prepared so far. This paper presents a proposal of environmental risk assessment methodology which can be used for corporate risk management procedures during exploration and extraction of unconventional hydrocarbons in Poland. The most frequent environmental threats that may occur during the exploration and exploitation of unconventional hydrocarbon deposits include degradation of soils through construction of drilling rigs and access roads, landforms change, local soil pollution caused by fuels, cleaning agents and materials used to prepare drilling fluids, rubble, cement, gravel, pollution of surface and underground water as a result of emergency discharges of sewage, infiltration of pollution from waste reservoirs, disturbance of hydrogeological equilibrium through significant water intake, noise and atmospheric pollution resulting from the combustion of fuels. To check the level of these threats’ six exploration sites form Pomeranian and Carpathian region of Poland (3 wells of shale gas and 3 wells of tight gas) have been evaluated in detail, and the risk quantification has been made. Because of a local, short-term and reversible environment impact, the environmental risks for the exploration and extraction processes of unconventional hydrocarbons have been found to be medium or negligibly small. It is recommended that using the same methodology for other regions of Poland where we can find unconventional hydrocarbons and it can be enriched in dedicated application with spatial maps to give the investors a quick feedback on the potential environmental risks. Key words: environmental risk assessment, sustainable development, shale gas, tight gas drilling rig, environment pollution.

Управління екологічними ризиками в стратегії розвитку промислових підприємств.

The place and the role of an environmental risk management in the implementation of the industrial enterprise’s development strategy is researched in the article. The national approaches to environmental risk assessment are analyzed. It is revealed that the available methods of environmental risk management at industrial enterprises do not sufficiently take into account the strategic planning objectives of environmental modernization. The aim of the research is to determine the features of the environmental development strategy of industrial enterprises in the framework of a preventive approach to economic activities. Using the method of theoretical generalization and abstraction, the classification of development strategies with consideration of environmental factors of activity of industrial enterprises is proposed. The importance of environmental risk assessment in strategic planning of industrial enterprises is substantiated by logic-analytical methods. The main requirements for the methodology of environmental risk assessment are formulated, the basic tools for the analysis and management of environmental risks are presented. The scientific principles of choosing an ecological development strategy of industrial enterprises were improved. The main groups of factors of changing approach to economic management within the framework of ecological modernization are identified, which include rigidity of ecological requirements from external stakeholders, orientation on strengthening of ecological competitive advantages, international and national ecological legislation, tools of formation and implementation of ecological strategy, implementation of approaches to adapt ongoing activities to strategic and tactical environmental. This research creates the basis for further improvement of the methodology of environmental risk assessment of industrial enterprises and its implementation in the system of environmental risk management of industrial enterprises.

Environmental Risk Researches as a Key Element of the Environmental Impact Assessment

Purpose. Describe the categories of environmental risk, the degree of their impact on the environment. Results. The place of ecological risk in the system of environmental impact assessment is substantiated. Modern methodology for environmental risk assessment involves a parallel consideration of risks to human health and environmental risks caused by disturbance of ecosystems and adverse effects on environmental components, risks of deteriorating quality and deteriorating living conditions. The reasons for the risk are unplanned events in the environment that may adversely affect the company, the progress of its plans. These include both predictable and unpredictable events. Risk factors are the conditions under which risk causes may arise. Among them are: political, scientific and technical, socio-economic, environmental and more. Conclusions. In the strategic perspective, it is necessary to improve the national environmental policy and create a national system of environmental safety and an effective system of environmental monitoring as a universal tool for its implementation. One of the tasks of this system is effective environmental risk management.

Disentanglement of the chemical, physical, and biological processes aids the development of quantitative structure-biodegradation relationships for aerobic wastewater treatment

Attenuation of organic compounds in sewage treatment plants (STPs) is affected by a complex interplay between chemical (e.g. ionization, hydrolysis), physical (e.g. sorption, volatilization), and biological (e.g. biodegradation, microbial acclimation) processes. These effects should be accounted for individually, in order to develop predictive cheminformatics tools for STPs. Using measured data from 70 STPs in the Netherlands for 69 chemicals (pharmaceuticals, herbicides, etc.), we highlighted the influences of 1) chemical ionization, 2) sorption to sludge, and 3) acclimation of the microbial consortia on the primary removal of chemicals. We used semi-empirical corrections for each of these influences to deduce biodegradation rate constants upon which quantitative structure-biodegradation relationships (QSBRs) were developed. As shown by a global QSBR, biodegradation in STPs generally relates to structural complexity, size, energetics, and charge distribution. Statistics of the global QSBR were reasonable, being R2training=0.69 (training set of 51 compounds) and R2validation=0.50 (validation set of 18 compounds). Class-specific QSBRs utilized electronic properties potentially relating to rate-limiting enzymatic steps. For class-specific QSBRs, values of R2 of in between 0.7 and 0.8 were obtained. With caution, environmental risk assessment methodologies may apply these models to estimate biodegradation rates for ‘data-poor’ compounds. The approach also highlights ‘meta data’ on STP operational parameters needed to develop QSBRs of better predictability in the future.

Risk assessment

Abstract The chapter introduces risk assessment and examines the basic concepts of risk and hazard, their causes, consequences and probabilities. The methodology of environmental risk assessment including effect assessment, exposure assessment and risk estimation/characterisation is overviewed. Application of risk assessment for chemicals is described with regard to human health and the environment. Some of the commonly used techniques in risk assessments are introduced and illustrated by examples. Environmental risk assessment should provide input to the risk management so well-informed decisions can be made, to protect human health and the environment.

Proposal for a new environmental risk assessment methodology in cultural heritage protection

Abstract In this paper, it is proposed a new methodology for the environmental risk assessment in cultural heritage, developed in close collaboration with conservation scientists and library collection managers. This New rIsk assessment methodology for Cultural HEritage protection (NICHE) is specifically addressed to the protection of cultural heritage housed in museums, galleries and archives. At the present stage of development, our proposal can be considered as a “relative risk assessment methodology” for the environmental risks to cultural heritage, as are many other methodologies for the risk assessment of works of art. However, NICHE is grounded in a new general definition of risk; it is inserted in a more general and wider conceptual framework, as far as the definition of risk is concerned. In addition, although it is a relative risk assessment methodology, NICHE takes explicitly into account the effects of microclimatic conditions on the works of art, based on the current scientific knowledge and requirements reported in international norms. Here the NICHE approach is applied to the results of two measurement campaigns carried out in 2014 over two different periods, considered “extreme” from the climatic point of view, in the Classense Library of Ravenna (Italy), a famous historical library which houses many books of great value. In these measurement campaigns, various indoor environments were characterized. Even though we focus our attention mainly on the risks related to effects of the microclimatic environment on the works of art, future extensions to other classes of risks, such as structural, related to usage, arising from natural phenomena (earthquakes, floods, storms…), infesting agents (pests, insects, moulds…), technical malfunctions, etc., can be easily performed. In fact, all situations where the effects of the sources of risk on the targets of interest can be described with an S shaped function (for example, a Dose-Response Curve, a Probit or a Logit models) can be treated with the NICHE approach, grounded in the comparison with threshold reference values reported in the technical/scientific literature and norms.

Environmental risk assessment of acid rock drainage under uncertainty: The probability bounds and PHREEQC approach

Acid rock drainage (ARD) is a major environmental problem that poses significant environmental risks during and after mining activities. A new methodology for environmental risk assessment based on probability bounds and a geochemical speciation model (PHREEQC) is presented. The methodology provides conservative and non-conservative ways of estimating risk of heavy metals posed to selected endpoints probabilistically, while propagating data and parameter uncertainties throughout the risk assessment steps. The methodology is demonstrated at a minesite located in British Columbia, Canada. The result of the methodology for the case study minesite shows the fate-and-transport of heavy metals is well simulated in the mine environment. In addition, the results of risk characterization for the case study show that there is risk due to transport of heavy metals into the environment.

Evaluation of the Processes with Application of the Environmental Risk Assessment

The ideal process can be described as the one, in which the effect is consistent with the requirements of all stakeholders. Unfortunately the realization of the processes in the XXI environment century is exposed to influence of the factors creating the risk of incompatibilities occurrence. The new trends in technologies improvement should be now directed toward the elimination of the potential integrated threats of the processes. Looking for the manners of risk minimization organizations apply different methods of risk assessment. The most popular ones are used in the quality and safety range. Whereas the environmental methods usually refrain from legal requirements or environmental norms, and their methodology in most cases is different than in quality and occupational range. Therefore, the main objective of the paper has been to work out the methodology of environmental risk assessment. The methodology gives the instructions for evaluating the acceptability of the environmental risk. It is reflected by the environmental risk ratio connected with the environmental impacts occurrence and significance, the fulfilling the legal requirements as well as the supervision over the environmental aspects. It is uniform with the integrated risk management and can be used to manage either environmental risk or integrated risk to improve the processes in every organization.

Environmental Risk Assessment Methodology (ERAM) for Oil Pollution

Coastal areas have economical, archaeological, cultural, economic and environmental significance. During the last decades, a rapid development of recreation and other tourism activities has been noticed. However, these coastal areas are often visited by oil tankers for transportation purposes; this paper considers risk analysis by using index. Each index and methodology are presented in detail. This analysis provides a mathematical tool to determine oil pollution risks that lead to handle with marine environment and oil pollution prevention.

Developing Environmental Risk Assessment Methodologies

AbstractEnvironmental risk assessment (ERA) generally focuses on a specific human activity because each activity entails different variables and environmental indicators. Risk is inherent in environmental impact assessment (EIA) and can be calculated parallel to EIA. In previous studies, an EIA ontology (OEIA) and a method of obtaining brief ontologies for specific sectors of the main ontology were described. The main ontology specifies the relations between activities, their impacts, the affected environmental factors, and the pertinent ERA and EIA indicators. This paper describes, as a principal goal, a procedure to develop ERA methodologies for human activities. First, an ERA methodology for landfills is presented with a tree-based structure whose root node is the risk index. Mechanisms for considering other environmental variables and factors are specified, as well as the way to generalize the method to any human activity. Accordingly, this study proposes an OEIA-based tool that can be used to create ...

On the trade-off between minimum fuel burn and maximum time between overhaul for an intercooled aeroengine

A large variety of promising power and propulsion system concepts are being proposed to reduce carbon dioxide and other emissions. However, the best candidate to pursue is difficult to select and it is imperative that major investments are correctly targeted to deliver environmentally friendly, economical and reliable solutions. To conceive and assess gas turbine engines with minimum environmental impact and lowest cost of ownership in a variety of emission legislation scenarios and emissions taxation policies, a tool based on a techno-economic and environmental risk assessment methodology is required. A tool based on this approach has been developed by the authors. The core of the tool is a detailed and rigorous thermodynamic representation of power plants, around which other modules can be coupled (that model different disciplines such as aircraft performance, economics, emissions, noise, weight and cost) resulting in a multidisciplinary framework. This approach can be used for efficient and cost-effective design space exploration in the civil aviation, power generation, marine, and oil and gas fields. In the present work, a conceptual intercooled core aeroengine design was assessed with component technologies consistent with 2020 entry into service via a multidisciplinary optimisation approach. Such an approach is necessary to assess the trade-off between asset life, operating costs and technical specification. This paper examines the influence of fuel consumption, engine weight and direct operating costs with respect to extending the engine life. The principal modes of failure such as creep, fatigue and oxidation, are considered in the engine life estimation. Multidisciplinary optimisation, comprising the main engine design parameters, was carried out with maximum time between overhaul as the objective function. The trade-off between minimum block fuel burn and maximum engine life was examined; the results were compared against the initial engine design and an assessment was made to identify the design changes required for obtaining an improved engine design in terms of direct operating costs. The results obtained from the study demonstrate that an engine optimised for maximum time between overhaul requires a lower overall pressure ratio and specific thrust but this comes at the cost of lower thermal efficiency and higher engine production costs.

Uncertainty due to low‐dose extrapolation: modified BMD methodology for epidemiological data

Traditional environmental risk assessment methodologies, including benchmark dose (BMD) estimation, were originally developed to be used with animal toxicology data. We discuss some problems that can occur when toxicology‐based methods are applied to human cohort studies, and we propose a new method for BMD risk estimation adapted to epidemiological data. Instead of extrapolating to zero‐dose levels to estimate risk in an unexposed population, our proposed alternative involves specifying a nonzero background exposure level instead. To account for uncertainty in that level, we can average modified BMDs over a distribution of exposure levels. We apply our modified BMD method to analyze data from a cohort study designed to assess the effects of prenatal polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) exposure on cognitive ability in young children. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Methodology of environmental risk assessment management

Successful protection of environment is mostly based on high-quality assessment of potential and present risks. Environmental risk management is a complex process which includes: identification, assessment and control of risk, namely taking measures in order to minimize the risk to an acceptable level. Environmental risk management methodology: In addition to these phases in the management of environmental risk, appropriate measures that affect the reduction of risk occurrence should be implemented: - normative and legal regulations (laws and regulations), - appropriate organizational structures in society, and - establishing quality monitoring of environment. The emphasis is placed on the application of assessment methodologies (three-model concept), as the most important aspect of successful management of environmental risk. Risk assessment methodology - European concept: The first concept of ecological risk assessment methodology is based on the so-called European model-concept. In order to better understand this ecological risk assessment methodology, two concepts - hazard and risk - are introduced. The European concept of environmental risk assessment has the following phases in its implementation: identification of hazard (danger), identification of consequences (if there is hazard), estimate of the scale of consequences, estimate of consequence probability and risk assessment (also called risk characterization). The European concept is often used to assess risk in the environment as a model for addressing the distribution of stressors along the source - path - receptor line. Risk assessment methodology - Canadian concept: The second concept of the methodology of environmental risk assessment is based on the so-called Canadian model-concept. The assessment of ecological risk includes risk arising from natural events (floods, extreme weather conditions, etc.), technological processes and products, agents (chemical, biological, radiological, etc.) and industrial activities that may pose threats to ecosystems, flora, fauna and humans. This model-concept gives a three-phase assessment where the assessor tries to determine whether a specific place may be subject to assessment, to characterize the level of risk and to confirm or refute the findings of the first phase, collecting information and corrective measures, or to establish basic requirements for environment protection. Risk assessment methodology - American concept: The third methodological approach to environmental risk assessment is developed by the U.S. Agency for Environmental Protection, 'U.S. EPA'. This model primarily involves the implementation of environmental risk assessment under the conditions of anthropogenic impact on environment, without aiming at solving problems of natural environmental risks, although this methodology can be applied in this environment segment as well. The methodology gives a clear distinction between a scientific (phase of estimation) and a non-scientific (planning) part of assessment. The phases of estimation given by this model are: problem formulation, risk analysis and risk characterization. Conclusion: Concepts and methodologies of all three models-concepts of assessment are mostly reduced to a common goal: how to reduce existing or avoid potential risks. However, it should be noted that the implementation of appropriate management and ecological risk assessment does not guarantee that risks will be avoided or that the implementation of these processes will be successful.

An integrated Shannon's Entropy–TOPSIS methodology for environmental risk assessment of Helleh protected area in Iran

This study aims to use integrated Shannon's Entropy-TOPSIS methodology for environmental risk assessment of the Helleh protected area in Iran. In this research, first, with regard to field visits, interview with natives of the area, and investigation of the environment of the study area, the risks existing in the region were identified. Then, for final identification of the risks, the Delphi method was applied. Analysis and prioritization of risks of the area of Helleh were performed by multi-criteria decision-making methods of Shannon's Entropy and the Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS). In this research, risks were assessed by three criteria of severity, probability of occurrence, and vulnerability. Twenty six of the risks were identified which were specified in two groups, natural events and environmental risks. The environmental ones were classified into four groups: physicochemical, biological, social-economic, and cultural. Results of the research showed that the construction of the Rayis-Ali-Delvari Dam at the upper part of the study area threatens the wetland. Water supply for the dam 75 km away from the area with concession of 0.9999 holds the first priority of risk-generating factors. Of the managerial workable solutions suggested controlling the risks, the stopping of the pumping of water from the wetland and observation of hunting season length and permissible type and number of hunting in the area can be mentioned.

Guidance on the environmental risk assessment of plant pests

The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) requested the Panel on Plant Health to develop a methodology for assessing the environmental risks posed by harmful organisms that may enter, establish and spread in the European Union. To do so, the Panel first reviewed the methods for assessing the environmental risks of plant pests that have previously been used in pest risk assessment. The limitations identified by the review led the Panel to define the new methodology for environmental risk assessment which is described in this guidance document. The guidance is primarily addressed to the EFSA PLH Panel and has been conceived as an enhancement of the relevant parts of the Guidance on a harmonised framework for pest risk assessment and the identification and evaluation of pest risk management options by EFSA. Emphasizing the importance of assessing the consequences on both the structural (biodiversity) and the functional (ecosystem services) aspects of the environment, this new approach includes methods for assessing both aspects for the first time in a pest risk assessment scheme. A list of questions has been developed for the assessor to evaluate the consequences for structural biodiversity and for ecosystem services in the current area of invasion and in the risk assessment area. To ensure the consistency and transparency of the assessment, a rating system has also been developed based on a probabilistic approach with an evaluation of the degree of uncertainty. Finally, an overview of the available risk reduction options for pests in natural environments is presented, minimum data requirements are described, and a glossary to support the common understanding of the principles of this opinion is provided. © European Food Safety Authority, 2011

Staining of Protonemal Cells of Ceratodon Purpureus (Hedw.) Brid. for Better Highlighting Micronuclei in Bryophytes

The aim of this study is to develop a technique of visualization and staining of nuclei of protonemal cells of Ceratodon purpureus (Hedw.) Brid. in order to establish a test of genotoxicity (micronucleus assay). This technique is part of the development of methodology for environmental risk assessment. Bryophytes are often used as biological models in biomonitoring and ecotoxicology. For ecotoxicology studies, there are bioassays, including micronucleus assay. The genotoxicity assay is often practiced in higher plants; we wanted to expand its use to lower plants, like mosses and especially Ceratodon purpureus. To meet the criteria of micronucleus assay, the cells of protonemata of Ceratodon purpureus were selected as a model. The liquid culture of protonemata provides the quantity of biomass needed to achieve a bioassay. First, the development of a reproducible method for visualization and staining of the nuclei of protonemal cells was a necessary and prior step to the realization of micronucleus assay. So for this staining stage, the coloring agent used was the acetic orcein. It is the reference coloring agent for the micronucleus test on Vicia faba (AFNOR, 2004). With our assays of staining, we could develop a reproducible technique of staining of protonemal nuclei. Then, to attempt to visualize micronuclei, we used our method of staining after an exposure of protonemata to cadmium. The first test of staining of micronuclei following exposure of protonemata to Cd failed to demonstrate micronuclei in the conditions of the experiment. Further research must be conducted using other clastogenic agents to validate our results. Assays on micronuclei of cells of protonemata of Ceratodon purpureus are a first in scientific research. Its innovative aspect encourages further research.

Systemic risks of genetically modified crops: the need for new approaches to risk assessment

Since more than 25 years, public dialogues, expert consultations and scientific publications have concluded that a comprehensive assessment of the implications of genetic engineering in agriculture and food production needs to include health, environmental, social and economical aspects, but only very few legal frameworks allow to assess the two latter aspects. This article aims to explain the divergence between societal debate and biosafety legislation and presents approaches to bring both together. The article reviews the development of biosafety regulations in the USA and the EU, focussing on diverging concepts applied for assessing the risks of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). The dominant environmental risk assessment methodology has been developed to answer basic questions to enable expedient decision making. As a first step, methodologies that take into account complex environmental and landscape aspects should be applied. Expanding the scope of risk assessment, more holistic concepts have been developed, for example the Organisation for Econonomic Co-operation and Development (OECD) concept of systemic risks which includes socio-economic aspects. International bodies as the OECD, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the European Union (EU) have developed the Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) as an instrument that includes the additional aspects of risk assessment as demanded by many stakeholders. Interestingly, there had been no attempts yet to link the existing frameworks of GMO risk assessment and SEA. It is recommended to adapt current models of SEA to assess the systemic risks of GMOs. It is also suggested to revise the EU GMO legislation to promote the inclusion of SEA elements.