Metaphorical Extension Research Articles

Investigating metaphor comprehension strategies of young Second Language students of Greek

Abstract This study investigates the metaphor comprehension strategies used by elementary school students with Greek as an L2 when they encounter a Greek metaphorical expression. Using open metaphor comprehension tasks, as well as stimulated recall interviews, the present study aims to describe students’ cognitive processes in relation to the bodily, conceptual and sociο-experiential motivation that triggers their emergence (Kimmel, 2006; Zlatev, 2006). The results demonstrate that a variety of strategies are used by the participants with metaphorical extension of the literal meanings dominating on the others. In the same conditions, mental imagery, as well as universality of metaphors interact in a variety of respects and define not only the strategy that is used, but also the extent to which the linguistic metaphors are comprehended in a non-directive context.

From sequentiality to schematization: network-based analysis of covarying collexemes in Mandarin degree adverb constructions

Abstract This study investigates the semantic structures of degree adverb constructions (DAC) in Mandarin through a network-based approach. We first utilized covarying collexeme analysis to determine significant collexeme pairs strongly associated with the DAC. We then incorporated network-based quantitative methods to analyze the emerging schemas from these collexeme pairs. Our approach involved implementing network analyses at two levels. The collexeme-based network consisted of lexical nodes representing degree adverbs and modified heads, while the construction-based network featured collexeme pairs as nodes. The collexeme-based network reveals that degree adverbs develop distinct semantic preferences for attributes within specific semantic fields, primarily capturing subjective and evaluative aspects of human experience. The construction-based network highlights dynamic interactions among these significant collexeme pairs, showcasing semantically interconnected collexeme pairs forming cohesive constructional families. Furthermore, these semantic groupings underscore the crucial role of metaphorical extension in creating larger semantic clusters for higher-level linguistic generalization. The emergence of semantic coherences from both networks reflects the evolving nature of linguistic generalizations, transitioning from low-level pivot schemas in the collexeme-based network to higher-order generalizations in the construction-based network. This study contributes to the field of usage-based grammar by emphasizing the fundamental role of sequentiality and interconnectedness between linguistic units in linguistic generalization.

Integrating approaches to the role of metaphor in the evolutionary dynamics of language

Abstract Metaphor occupies a central role not only in language use, but also in language change and evolution. Specifically, semantic extension motivated by metaphor plays an important role in extending the lexicon of languages. It is this process that enables the emergence of one of the key properties of modern languages, namely that they are open-ended, systematic, polysemous, structured semiotic systems. Here, we review results from three approaches whose integration presents an important cornerstone for an interdisciplinary account of the role of metaphor in the evolutionary dynamics of language: (1) Historical linguistics and diachronic semantics (2) Computational approaches and natural language processing, and (3) Experimental semiotics. Research in historical linguistics has shown that metaphor is a major mechanism of semantic change. Diachronic semantic analyses have not only mapped detailed historical trajectories of semantic extension motivated by metaphor, but also identified common metaphoric pathways of change as well as shared cognitive principles underlying them. Computational approaches and natural language processing have used findings and data from historical linguistics in attempts to automate the detection of metaphoric semantic change and to build data-driven models models of the principles underlying it. Experimental semiotics is a paradigm in which participants have to create novel communication systems in the absence of language. It represents an experimental design that can investigate cultural linguistic evolution and the emergence of metaphors and metaphorical extensions under controlled laboratory settings to shed light on the interactional and cognitive principles involved in it. Combining results from these approaches represents an important first step towards an interdisciplinary, integrative account of the role of metaphor, and processes of polysemous meaning extension more generally, in the evolutionary dynamics of language.

A Cognitive Semantic Account of the Preposition “‘bra” in Modern Standard Arabic with Reference to the English “Through”

Prepositions are crucial grammatical devices for indicating location, movement, time, and other meanings. A case in point is the Arabic preposition “‘abra,” which expresses different spatial, temporal, and abstract meanings. Adopting a cognitive semantic perspective, this study investigates ‘abra, its diverse spatial meanings, and metaphorical extensions. It also uses cognitive constructs such as image schemas, prototypes, and conceptual metaphor to demonstrate how various senses of ‘abra can be described based on perceptual properties and cognitive characteristics. In addition, this study compares the meanings of ‘abra with those of its English equivalent (through). This research uses authentic examples from Modern Standard Arabic available through the Sketch Engine website and illustrations created by the researcher. The analytical description involves the basic schema, the prototypical meaning, and the metaphorical extensions. The findings reveal that ‘abra and “through” share a basic image schema and prototypical sense with slight differences resulting from varying conceptualizations. The metaphorical extensions are also similar. The distinctions between the two mostly pertain to the semantic scope in addition to the fact that ‘abra also covers the meaning of the preposition “across.” Generally, this analysis asserts that prepositional meanings are best described using a cognitive semantic framework. The results may be useful in the fields of lexicon, second learning and teaching, as well as translation.

God in Tibetan: On the Use of an Impersonal Concept as a Translation for “God”

The word for God used in many Bible translations in Tibetan-related languages is dkon mchog, a Tibetan Buddhist concept originally designating the so-called “Buddhist Trinity”: Buddha, dharma (the teachings), and sangha (the community of disciples). The expression was first used by Jesuit missionaries in the eighteenth century, and a review of their argumentation shows that its use is due to more than simply its superficial resemblance to the Christian Trinity. Expressions used in translation for unknown concepts undergo over time a semantic shift, by which the concept is reinterpreted and filled with new content corresponding to the biblical understanding. This shift can take place via metonymic or metaphoric extension, and the change is relatively unconstrained. The metonymic shift required in order for the concept dkon mchog to convey the biblical meaning is not likely to result in polysemy and may therefore give less cause for misunderstanding than the polysemous expressions (God/god) used in most other Bible translations.

Analyzing semantic shifts in English and German by exploring historical influences and societal dynamics

This research examines the mechanisms of semantic change in English and German, focusing on comparing and contrasting these processes across the two languages and investigating the influence of major historical events and societal shifts. By utilizing digital text corpora, libraries, archives, and modern digital media, the study conducts qualitative analyses, including case studies and discourse analysis, to explore semantic evolution. Thematic analysis was employed to thoroughly examine and interpret the data, allowing for the identification of recurring patterns, themes, and significant insights. The results showed that both English and German undergo significant semantic shifts driven by a metaphorical extension (i.e., narrowing or broadening of meanings, pejoration and amelioration, frequency and pathway of change, cultural and historical influences) and historical events and societal shifts that influence semantic change (i.e., wars and conflicts, industrialization, technological advancement, globalization, and cultural exchange, societal movements, and ideological shifts). The role of metaphorical extension is seen in adapting language to technological advancements while highlighting linguistic evolution through narrowing and broadening meanings influenced by cultural, historical, and linguistic factors. Additionally, pejoration and amelioration reflect societal changes and attitudes. Historical events and societal shifts, such as wars, industrialization, technological advancements, globalization, and social movements, significantly impact semantic changes in both English and German. These external influences catalyze language use and meaning shifts, illustrating the interaction between language and human experience.

Arabicization via Loan Translation: A Corpus-based Analysis of Neologisms Translated from English into Arabic in the Field of Information Technology

Abstract This study aims to use a corpus-based analysis to examine loan translation (LT) as an Arabicization technique in Written Standard Arabic (WSA) for information technology (IT) and investigate the factors impacting LT formation. Data were collected from four corpora: four Arabic online newspapers, the Microsoft Language Portal, two user manuals, and the Arabic Corpus of King Abdul-Aziz City for Science and Technology (KACST). Four LT strategies were identified: morphosyntactic pattern alteration, literal translation, loan blending, and metaphorical extension. Literal translation occurred in three degrees: full LTs, partial LTs, and non-LTs, through calquing. Metaphors based on functional similarity played a crucial role in understanding and accepting IT terms in WSA. Paradigmatic variation prevailed in LTs, with synonymous variations more common than nonsynonymous ones, and no syntagmatic variation. The KACST analysis showed significant differences in occurrence frequency among LT variants. LT formation and variation were influenced by linguistic factors such as lexical need, semantic transparency, and lexical borrowing, as well as extralinguistic factors such as nationalism and lack of coordination among Arabic language academies. The study concludes with implications for addressing the absence of coordination between these academies and improving IT-related LT quality between English and WSA.

A Taste of Metaphor Variation: Contrasting the Metaphorical Extensions of “stew” and “guisar”

This article examines the range of metaphors activated by the cooking term stew in English and its Spanish counterpart guisar. The data were drawn from Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) and Corpus del Español: Web and Dialects. The metaphors were identified by applying MIP (Pragglejaz Group, 2007) and incorporating semantic frames (Fillmore, 1982) to provide a detailed analysis of the mappings between the core frame elements involved, and the thematic roles performed by those elements. The results suggest that English and Spanish diverge considerably regarding the metaphors evoked by stew and guisar. The lemma stew activated a broader scope of metaphorical extensions than guisar. Just one shared metaphor was identified, which underscores the presence of distinct cognitive preferences within the respective languages.

LINGUISTIC STUDY OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS EXPRESSING COLOR IN ENGLISH AND UZBEK LANGUAGES

This study conducts a comparative analysis of phraseological units expressing color in English and Uzbek languages, aiming to uncover linguistic and cultural intricacies embedded within these expressions. Through systematic data collection, selection, and analysis, we elucidate semantic structures, metaphorical extensions, and cultural connotations associated with color-related phraseology in each language. In English, a plethora of idiomatic expressions reflect the pervasive influence of color symbolism, while Uzbek phraseology emphasizes natural phenomena and cultural motifs. Contrastive analysis reveals both cross-linguistic universality and language-specific nuances in color representation. Our findings underscore the dynamic interplay between language, culture, and cognition in shaping perceptions of color. This research contributes to a deeper understanding of linguistic diversity and cultural identity, highlighting the significance of phraseological analysis in uncovering the intricate nuances of language and culture.

Constructions of the Compound Noun in Indonesian: A Derivational Morphology Approach

This research investigated the intricate process of constructing compound nouns in Indonesian through the lens of derivational morphology. Indonesians, renowned for their rich linguistic structure, employed compound nouns extensively in daily communication. This study delved into the mechanisms behind the formation of compound nouns, analyzing the intricate interplay between constituent morphemes and the rules governing their combination. Employing a derivational morphology framework, the research aimed to unveil the underlying patterns, rules, and semantic nuances that governed the construction of compound nouns in Indonesian. The findings showed that (1) the formation of compound nouns in the Indonesian language primarily occurred through compounding, which involved the combination of two or more free morphemes; (2) there were various cognitive processes such as categorization, metaphorical extension, and conceptual blending for better understanding and generating compound nouns; and (3) a set of systematic rules dictated how morphemes were combined and modified to create complex compound nouns. The findings contributed to a deeper understanding of the structural intricacies of the language, shedding light on its derivational processes and their implications for linguistic analysis.

ILLITERATE AUTHORS AND LITERATE FOOTBALLERS: CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS BASED ON THE SOURCE DOMAIN OF LITERACY IN CONTEMPORARY SERBIAN

This study applies the conceptual metaphor theory to examine the metaphorical extensions of meaning of literacy-related lexicon in contemporary Serbian. The cognitive semantic analysis used the online Corpus of Contemporary Serbian together with the Sketch Engine’s Serbian electronic subcorpus (srWaC). To identify metaphorically used lexemes belonging to the source domain of literacy, the MIP proce- dure was applied, the target domains identified and the underlying conceptual metaphors were formulated. The findings demonstrate that the speakers of contemporary Serbian utilize literacy to comprehend the target domains of familiarity with language, accomplished writing, familiarity with literature, general education, physical ability, basic acquaintance with (or expertise in) a field of knowledge, critical thinking, sophistication and life experience. Critical analysis of the identified metaphorical mappings suggests that, while presenting the complex and highly valued target domains as a basic skill, literacy-based conceptual metaphors shift the responsibility for incompetence in one of the listed areas from the entire society to its underprivileged members.

What is the Human Heart?

The article discusses ontological metaphors with the target domain HEART in the text of the New Testament. It aims at exploring cross-domain mappings through the analysis of metaphoric expressions, involving lexeme heart, obtained by the Bible corpus analysis employing the method of continuous sampling. The research is based on the principles of Conceptual Metaphor Theory and proves its tenet that abstract ideas are conceptualized on the basis of knowledge about basic concrete things. It is stated that the two superordinate mappings involve domains THING and PERSON. Each of these mappings has elaborations and metaphoric extensions, which unravel the heart’s non-ordinary and unexpected features, justifying a different viewpoint to its understanding. The obtained results can be useful for adapts of Christianityб theologists and literary scholars as they provide insight into conceiving one of the essential theological concepts – HEART, deeper than its literal reading, which contributes to a more profound understanding of the Biblical messages.

From “throwing rocks” to “starting to cry”. The grammaticalization of Spanish throw verbs into inchoative auxiliaries

The inchoative construction expresses the onset of an event and is very productive in Peninsular Spanish. This study zooms in on the grammaticalization of throw verbs (arrojar, echar, lanzar and tirar) as auxiliaries in the inchoative construction and analyzes why this category is such a productive source for the inchoative aspect. It claims that the semantic domains of ‘throwing’ and ‘the start of an event’ are cross-linguistically related and that the grammaticalization process constitutes a case of metaphorical extension. The paper argues that the pathway towards the inchoative schema consists of five stages: (1) transitive use, (2) pronominal use denoting concrete movement, (3) pronominal use denoting abstract movement, (4) combine with an infinitive (bridging context) and (5) the inchoative use. Echar was the first throw verb to take on the inchoative aspect, in the 13th century, after which other near-synonymous verbs were attracted to the inchoative schema.

Semantic Extensions of Hausa Visual and Auditory Perception Verbs gani and ji in Romance Fiction

This study focuses on the metaphorical semantic extension of Hausa visual and auditory perception verbs as portrayed in romance fiction. Hausa language, just like any other language, provides a window into how speakers use language to make sense of the world around them. The study examines how language users attribute abstract concepts, such as thinking and understanding, to sensory experiences of seeing and hearing, drawing on the conceptual metaphor theory. The study analysed a corpus of Hausa romance fiction, focusing on the use of perception verbs and the metaphorical extensions they evoke. A qualitative research approach was employed, and literary texts were selected as the primary data source. The text data were extracted using the AntConc programme, and such data were then analysed using a cognitive semantics analytical framework. The study’s findings indicated that verbs of higher intellect, such as “understand” and “think”, are derived from hearing and vision, respectively. These metaphorical extensions are closely related to cultural beliefs and norms, emphasising the importance of visual and auditory cues in human relationships. This article provides insights into how language and culture intersect in using perception verbs in Hausa romance fiction texts and demonstrates the importance of understanding metaphorical extensions in studying language and culture.

Metaphorical extensions of the color term kaala ‘black’ in Hindi

Abstract This study explores the semantic and lexical extensions of the term for ‘black’ in Hindi by analyzing idiomatic expressions, compound words and culturally grounded metaphorical expressions from a cultural-cognitive perspective. The most commonly used Hindi term for black is kaala. The paper presents an analysis of 42 expressions with the term kaala (or its other morphological variants) in Hindi including idioms and compounds. The analysis finds that the color term extends to several experiential domains from emotions to morality and politics, usually signifying a negative aspect, but in some cases also a protection from negativity. It is found to be deep-rooted in Hindu mythology and grounds many a cultural belief. Several underlying metaphors are brought up by this analysis, many of which seem to be universal across languages, such as bad is black. But some metaphorical conceptualizations are found to be culture-specific, for instance the use of something black, like kaala tiika (black mark on the forehead or cheek), to counter the evil, and a goddess called kaali, said to have lethal powers. The analysis shows that the embodiment of human experience through the color ‘black’ has a substantial universal basis but at the same time, culture can lead to unique conceptualizations, as is the case with kaala.

Emergence of the honorific register in Tibetic languages

Abstract This article presents the first diachronic investigation of the honorific register in Tibetic languages. Although all historically attested Tibetic languages possess at least some rudimentary forms used to convey respect to others, no reconstruction of their origins has been previously attempted. In the article, the distinction is made between primary or simple honorifics and secondary or complex honorifics that are derived from the primary ones. It is argued that primary honorifics evolved from common lexical units by metaphorical extension and, strengthened through their use in ceremonial contexts, were eventually re-interpreted as expressing social deixis, originally with respect to the royal family, later extended to other persons of higher social standing.

Home away from Home: Imageability and Way finding in Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s The Thing Around Your Neck

This essay explores the process of orientation in migratory space in three of the twelve stories that make up Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s collection The Thing around Your Neck— “Imitation,” “On Monday of Last Week,” and “The Thing around Your Neck”—from the perspective of Kevin Lynch’s theory of wayfinding, developed in his work on urban spaces The Image of the City. The analysis of how gender and class affect the female protagonists’ conceptualization of home is based on Lynch’s notion of imageability. The metaphorical extension of the concepts of imageability and wayfinding aims to grasp migrants’ psychological and emotional experiences of orientation. Taking as a point of reference three highly imageable objects—masks, mirrors, and letters—the study of the protagonists’ wayfinding in America reveals the tension between reality and imagination in the creation of mental images of home. In her recognition of the potential of female agency, Adichie draws a parallel between the protagonists’ reorientation in the exilic space and their reorientation in their intimate relationships.

Examining the Metaphorical Extensions of hyɛ (a dress verb) in the Akan Language

In Akan culture, the act of getting dressed is typically expressed through the use of the verb hyԑ, meaning ‘wear’. This study thus examined the various literal and metaphorical interpretations of this verb in Akan communication. Through its ability to combine with different words, hyԑ can take on a wide range of meanings. The study drew data from the Legon-Zurich-Trondheim Akan Dictionary as well as interviews with four L1 speakers of Akan in the Offinso North District of the Ashanti Region of Ghana. The study was based on the Conceptual Metaphor Theory developed by Lakoff & Johnson. The verb hyԑ was used to derive some nominals through affixation and compounding. The evidence suggested that in addition to its basic meaning of dressing, the verb has taken on other metaphorical meanings such as being in a place, ordering/forcing someone, storing/preserving food, making something, covering, and bribing someone. These extended meanings of the verb, however, depend on the context in which the verb is used. This research has demonstrated that the dress verb is polysemous. It further concluded that when new words are derived from a verb, its basic meaning is either maintained or changes metaphorically. The study has implications for language learning since understanding the basic or metaphorical meaning of a word in a language impacts the understanding of the language in general. Keywords: Metaphorical extensions, dress verb, Akan language, Conceptual Metaphor Theory

汉语歌曲中隐喻的延伸模式

Metaphors, as a significant discourse-constructing strategy, are prevalent in the Chinese language, playing a crucial role in organizing discourse through metaphorical extensions. These extension patterns manifest as semantic interactions between the source domain and target domain, as well as between different target domains, forming units of meaning larger than individual clauses. This research identifies three major types of metaphorical extension: reiterative patterns, collocative patterns, and focalizing patterns. Reiterative patterns encompass repetition, synonymy, hyponymy, and meronymy, while focalizing patterns involve one-time and two-time focalizing patterns. The study focuses on Chinese love songs to explore these metaphorical extensions. By shedding light on the textual functions of metaphors, this research can contribute to a wider and deeper understanding of metaphors and advance metaphor research.

Discussing the Relationship between Father and Son, Ruler and Subjects in the Xiaojing: Based on the Dunhuang Manuscripts

It has long been accepted that the ancient Chinese ruler–subjects relationship was a metaphorical extension of the father–son relationship, where loyalty and family reverence were considered synonymous. The Confucian classic the Xiaojing is taken as a significant piece of evidence supporting this view. However, based on the annotated version of the Xiaojing discovered in Dunhuang, it is evident that during the Han Dynasty and the Six Dynasties period, Confucian scholars made clear distinctions between father–son relationships and ruler–subjects relationships. They also made a clear differentiation between the moral connotations of loyalty and family reverence. The father–son relationship is a bond of blood, while the ruler–subjects relationship is a bond of duty and appropriateness, meaning that the ethical requirements for the father–son relationship and ruler–subjects relationship are fundamentally different. Therefore, expressions such as “service to ruler with family reverence is loyalty” does not mean to unify loyalty and family reverence, but means that the governor should select people who have already cultivated the virtue of family reverence to become officials because they have learnt how to show respect in their family life.