Metamorphic Minerals Research Articles

A metamorphic mineral source for tungsten in the turbidite-hosted orogenic gold deposits of the Otago Schist, New Zealand

The orogenic gold deposits of the Otago Schist, New Zealand, are enriched in a variety of trace elements including Au, As, Ag, Hg, W and Sb. We combine laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) traverses and images to show that detrital rutile is the most important host mineral for W in the subgreenschist facies rocks. Furthermore, the prograde metamorphic recrystallisation of detrital rutile to titanite releases significant amounts of W (potentially 0.41 g/tonne of rock). Scheelite development closely follows the progression of this W-liberating reaction. Scheelite micrograins form early within the fabric of the rock evolving to locally and regionally sourced scheelite-bearing veins. Scheelite from syn-metamorphic veins at Fiddlers Flat and Lake Hāwea shows distinct differences in composition compared with scheelite from late-metamorphic veins at the Macraes Mine, the latter of which is enriched in REEs, Y and Sr. We suggest that the scheelite at Macraes became enriched due to the liberation of these elements during alteration of the Ca-silicate minerals epidote and titanite by the ore-forming fluid. These results are supportive of recent models for orogenic gold mineralisation in the Otago Schist, whereby prograde metamorphic recrystallisation of diagenetic or detrital metal-rich mineral phases (pyrite to pyrrhotite: Au, As, Ag, Hg and Sb; rutile to titanite: W) releases significant amounts of metals into the concurrently developing metamorphic fluids that can be subsequently focussed into regional structures and form significant tungsten-bearing orogenic gold deposits.

The Cedrolina Chromitite, Goiás State, Brazil: A Metamorphic Puzzle

The Cedrolina chromitite body (Goiás-Brazil) is concordantly emplaced within talc-chlorite schists that correspond to the poly-metamorphic product of ultramafic rocks inserted in the Pilar de Goiás Greenstone Belt (Central Brazil). The chromite ore displays a nodular structure consisting of rounded and ellipsoidal orbs (up to 1.5 cm in size), often strongly deformed and fractured, immersed in a matrix of silicates (mainly chlorite and talc). Chromite is characterized by high Cr# (0.80–0.86), high Fe2+# (0.70–0.94), and low TiO2 (av. = 0.18 wt %) consistent with variation trends of spinels from metamorphic rocks. The chromitite contains a large suite of accessory phases, but only irarsite and laurite are believed to be relicts of the original igneous assemblage, whereas most accessory minerals are thought to be related to hydrothermal fluids that emanated from a nearby felsic intrusion, metamorphism and weathering. Rutile is one of the most abundant accessory minerals described, showing an unusually high Cr2O3 content (up to 39,200 ppm of Cr) and commonly forming large anhedral grains (>100 µm) that fill fractures (within chromite nodules and in the matrix) or contain micro-inclusions of chromite. Using a trace element geothermometer, the rutile crystallization temperature is estimated at 550–600 °C (at 0.4–0.6 GPa), which is in agreement with P and T conditions proposed for the regional greenschist to low amphibolite facies metamorphic peak of the area. Textural, morphological, and compositional evidence confirm that rutile did not crystallize at high temperatures simultaneously with the host chromitite, but as a secondary metamorphic mineral. Rutile may have been formed as a metamorphic overgrowth product following deformation and regional metamorphic events, filling fractures and incorporating chromite fragments. High Cr contents in rutile very likely are due to Cr remobilization from Cr-spinel during metamorphism and suggest that Ti was remobilized to form rutile. This would imply that the magmatic composition of chromite had originally higher Ti content, pointing to a stratiform origin. Another possible interpretation is that the Ti-enrichment was caused by external metasomatic fluids which lead to crystallization of rutile. If this was the case, the Cedrolina chromitites could be classified as podiform, possibly representing a sliver of tectonically dismembered Paleoproterozoic upper mantle. However, the strong metamorphic overprint that affected the studied chromitites makes it extremely difficult to establish which of the above processes were active, if not both (and to what extent), and, therefore, the chromitite’s original geodynamic setting.

Coincidence of gabbro and granulite formation and their implication for Variscan HT metamorphism in the Moldanubian Zone (Bohemian Massif), example from the Kutná Hora Complex

Leucocratic metagabbro and amphibolite from a mafic–ultramafic body within migmatite and granulite in the Kutná Hora Complex were investigated. The mafic–ultramafic rocks show amphibolite facies metamorphism, but in the central part of the body some metagabbro preserves cumulus and intercumulus plagioclase, clinopyroxene and spinel. Spinel forms inclusions in both clinopyroxene and plagioclase and shows various degree of embayment structure, that was probably a result of reaction with melt during magmatic crystallization. In the metagabbro, garnet forms coronae around clinopyroxene at the contacts with plagioclase. Amphibolite contains garnet with prograde zoning and plagioclase. Phase relations of igneous and metamorphic minerals indicate that magmatic crystallization and subsequent metamorphism occurred as a result of isobaric cooling at a depth of 30–35km. U–Pb dating on zircon from leucogabbro yielded a Variscan age (337.7±2Ma) that is similar or close to the age of granulite facies metamorphism (ca 340Ma) in the Moldanubian Zone. Based on the calculated PT conditions and age data, both the mafic–ultramafic body and surrounding granulite shared the same exhumation path from their middle–lower crustal position at the end of Variscan orogeny. The coincidence of mafic–ultramafic intrusives and granulite–amphibolite facies metamorphism is explained by lithospheric upwelling beneath the Moldanubian Zone that occurred due to slab break-off during the final stages of subduction of the Moldanubian plate beneath the Teplá Barrandian Block. The model also addresses questions about the preservation of minerals and/or their compositions from the early metamorphic history of the rocks subjected to ultradeep subduction and subsequent granulite facies metamorphism.

Quantitative analysis of mass transfer during polymetamorphism in pelites of the Transangarian Yenisei Ridge

The study provides geological, structural, mineralogical, petrological, and geochronological evidence for polymetamorphic evolution of gneisses from the Garevka complex of the Yenisei Ridge. The results of the study provide significant insight into the geochemical behavior of major and trace elements in zoned garnet crystals and mineral inclusions formed during prograde and retrograde metamorphism of pelitic rocks. It was shown that the concentrations of Y and HREE in garnet decrease with increasing P and T and increase with decreasing pressure and temperature. The combined study of multicomponent chemical zoning patterns of coexisting minerals and metamorphic mineral reactions in metapelites was conducted. The results show that the main reason for a drastic increase in CaO content in garnets during collisional metamorphism is a mass exchange between garnet and plagioclase. The deviation from this trend, as indicated by the concurrent increase inthe grossular content of garnet and anorthite content of plagioclase, arises from the breakdown of epidote. The calculated metamorphic reactions, mass balance analysis, and changes in mineral chemistry during metamorphism reinforce the evidence for the isochemical character of processes with respect to most components of the system. The minimum volume of the system in which chemical exchange between reacting phases is balanced for all major and trace elements did not exceed ~1 mm3. The total HREE balance requires a greater reaction volume (up to ~8 mm ) involved in the redistribution of these elements, which provide evidence for their relatively higher mobility during metamorphism relative to other rare earth elements. The specific distribution and quite substantial mass transport of HREE are controlled by heterovalent isomorphic substitution between these elements and CaO in garnet.

Geochronology of the Duguer range metamorphic rocks, Central Tibet: implications for the changing tectonic setting of the South Qiangtang subterrane

ABSTRACTThe Duguer area represents one of the few occurrences of high-grade metamorphic rocks in the ‘Central Uplift’ zone of the Qiangtang terrane, central Tibet. The metamorphic rocks consist mainly of orthogneiss, paragneiss, and schist. To better understand the formation of these rocks, seven samples of gneiss and schist from the Duguer area were selected for in situ zircon U–Pb analysis and Ar–Ar dating of metamorphic minerals. The results suggest two distinct metamorphic stages, during the Late Triassic (229–227 Ma) and Late Jurassic (150–149 Ma). These stages correspond to the closure of the Palaeo-Tethys Ocean and northward subduction of the Bangong–Nujiang Neo-Tethys oceanic crust, respectively. We suggest that the Late Triassic metamorphic rocks of the Duguer area in the central South Qiangtang subterrane provide evidence of continental collision between the North and South Qiangtang subterranes, following the subduction of oceanic crust. It is likely that deep subduction of oceanic crust occurred along the Longmu Co–Shuanghu–Lancangjiang suture zone (LSLSZ), which would have hindered exhumation owing to the high density of oceanic crust. Subsequent break-off and delamination of the subducted oceanic slab at ~220 Ma may have resulted in exhumation of high-pressure and high-grade metamorphic rocks in the South Qiangtang subterrane. The Late Jurassic ages of metamorphism and deformation obtained in this study indicate the occurrence of an Andean-type orogenic event within the South Qiangtang subterrane. This hypothesis is further supported by an apparent age gap in magmatic activity (150–130 Ma) along the magmatic arc, and the absence of Late Jurassic sediments.

Correlating illite (Kübler) and chlorite (Árkai) “crystallinity” indices with metamorphic mineral zones of the South Island, New Zealand

Measuring clay mineral “crystallinity” by the illite “Kübler” or chlorite “Árkai” index has long been used to determine the metamorphic grade of pelitic metasedimentary rocks by recognition of the anchizone: a transitional state of regional metamorphism lying between diagenetic and low-grade metamorphic conditions. Originally defined by B. Kübler on the basis of clay mineral paragenesis, the application of the anchizone as a metamorphic tool has remained ambiguous partly due to inconsistencies in the standardization of the method and partly due to the lack of reliable correlations with well accepted metamorphic zones assemblages. In this study, 54 pelitic samples were analyzed from localities of defined mineral facies from the well-studied rocks of the South Island of New Zealand. Standardized Kübler and Árkai indices are presented for this sample suite using the widely applied standardized Crystallinity Index Scale (CIS) of measurement, and employing the new Frey-Kübler equivalent upper and lower boundary limits of the anchizone at 0.32 and 0.52°2θ. The results presented indicate that 76–78% of both Kübler index and Árkai index values correspond with the expected mineral facies when the epizone is taken to correspond to both the greenschist (chlorite-zone) and pumpellyite-actinolite facies, the anchizone to the prehnite-pumpellyite facies and the diagenetic zone to the zeolite facies. This good correspondence between Kübler and Árkai index values and metamorphic mineral zones confirms that clay “crystallinity” indices provide a useful method for mapping regional grades of low temperature metamorphism and the general state of cleavage development. Its effectiveness is, however, dependent on appropriate standardization to an internationally recognized scale of clay mineral “crystallinity” measurement, and implementation of true Kübler-equivalent anchizone boundary limits. The consistent variations between illite and chlorite “crystallinities” observed for the studied pelites of southern New Zealand, as defined on Kübler - Árkai index correlation plots, is suggested to reflect variations in the activities of K+, Fe2+ and Mg2+ in the metamorphic pore fluid.

Metamorphic P–T path of mafic granulites from Eastern Hebei: Implications for the Neoarchean tectonics of the Eastern Block, North China Craton

This study documents the metamorphic evolution of mafic granulites from the Eastern Hebei Complex in the Eastern Block of the North China Craton. Mafic granulites from Eastern Hebei occur as boudins or enclaves within Neoarchean high-grade TTG gneisses. Petrographic observations reveal three characteristic metamorphic mineral assemblages in the mafic granulites: the pre-peak hornblende+plagioclase+ilmenite+quartz+sphene assemblage (M1) existing as mineral inclusions within coarse-grained peak assemblage (M2) represented by garnet+clinopyroxene+orthopyroxene+plagioclase+hornblende+ilmenite+quartz, and post-peak assemblage (M3) marked by garnet+quartz±ilmenite symplectites surrounding the peak pyroxene and plagioclase. Based on pseudosection modeling calculated in the NCFMASHTO model system using the program THERMOCALC, P–T conditions of the pre-peak (M1), peak (M2) and post-peak (M3) assemblages are constrained at 600–715°C/6.0kbar or below, 860–900°C/9.6–10.3kbar, and 790–810°C/9.6–10.4kbar, respectively. These P–T estimates, combined with their mineral compositions and reaction relations, define an anticlockwise P–T path incorporating isobaric cooling subsequent to the peak medium-pressure granulite-facies metamorphism for the mafic granulites from Eastern Hebei. Such an anticlockwise P–T path suggests that the end-Neoarchean metamorphism of the Eastern Hebei Complex correlated closely with underplating and intrusion of voluminous mantle-derived magmas. In conjunction with other geological considerations, a mantle-plume model is favored to interpret the Neoarchean tectonothermal evolution of the Eastern Hebei Complex and other metamorphic complexes in the Eastern Block. The prograde amphibolite-facies metamorphism (M1) was initiated due to the upwelling of the relatively cooler mantle plume head, followed by the peak medium-pressure granulite-facies metamorphism (M2) as triggered by the uprising hotter plume “tail”, and finally when plume activity ceased, the heated metamorphic crust experienced nearly isobaric cooling (M3).

U–Pb dating and composition of inclusions in zircon from ophiolitic gabbro of the Klyuchevsk massif (Middle Urals): Results and geological interpretation

The U–Pb (SHRIMP) dating of zircon from the layered complex of ophiolitic gabbro in the Klyuchevsk massif yielded an age of 456 ± 6 Ma corresponding within the limits of error to zircon dates obtained for other petrographic varieties from this massif. The investigation of the composition of silicate inclusions in dated zircon grains revealed that they are represented by typical metamorphic minerals: albite, zoisite, and secondary amphiboles. The data indicate that zircon was crystallized during metamorphic transformations of gabbroids and its U–Pb age (Late Ordovician–Silurian) is characteristic of all rocks in the ophiolite association of the Klyuchevsk massif indicating the age of metamorphism, not their formation time.

Mineralogical and Petrographical Characteristics of Hornfels from Kowary (The Lower Silesia)

Abstract Hornfels from the closed “Wolność” mine (Kowary, the Lower Silesia) are recognized as thermally metamorphosed rocks belonging to hornblende-hornfels facies or locally a facies of pyroxene hornfels. Their texture reveal the traces of some deformations such as folding or fractures. Their protholit is described as a pelitic deposit enriched with clay minerals. The sediment was altered into meta-pelities-aleurites after the diagenesis, and later the rock was intensely thermally metamorphosed at the contact with the intrusion of the Karkonosze granitoid. Three varieties are distinguished based on their colour: green, grey and black. Green and black colours result from the predominance of hornblende and biotite over other rock components, respectively. Whereas grey hornfels are composed of similar amounts of both mafic minerals: biotite and hornblende. Quartz, mica minerals (biotite and muscovite), amphibole, (hornblende), acid plagioclase and andalusite, epidote group (clinozoisite), orthoclase and pyroxene make up hornfels components. Locally, andalusite is accompanied by sillimianite, which indicates a higher degree of contact metamorphism alterations. Three generations of minerals are distinguished in the rocks: allogenic (I), metamorphic (II) and hydrothermal (III). The allogenic phases are represented by heavy minerals such as zircon, apatite and monazite, which are characteristic of the protholit. The main components of the rocks (e.g. quartz, hornblende, feldspars, andalusite, sillimanite, mica minerals) belong to metamorphic minerals. Chalcopyrite, pyrite and fluorite are surely hydrothermally originated phases. Granitoides found at the contact zone with hornfels indicate traces of metasomatic alteration as a result of endomorphism in this region.

Variations in Large Synvolcanic Alteration Zones at Snow Lake, Manitoba, Canada, with Proximity to Associated Volcanogenic Massive Sulfide Deposits

Juvenile 1.89 Ga oceanic arc volcanic rocks of the Flin Flon volcanic belt at Snow Lake are characterized by extensive zones with anomalous 1.82 Ga metamorphic mineral assemblages, including porphyroblasts of garnet, staurolite, amphibole, biotite, gahnite, and/or kyanite. They were produced from altered rocks created during premetamorphic, 1.89 Ga, synvolcanic, hydrothermal fluid-rock interaction. Three separate episodes of hydrothermal alteration are recognized that span evolution of the host volcanic rocks from a primitive (nascent arc?) to mature arc geotectonic setting. The geologic, geochemical, mineralogical, and isotopic attributes of the zones indicate that they include volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS)-related alteration, and they were produced at high and low temperatures and formed in seafloor/near seafloor and subseafloor (intrastratal) environments. Large-scale alteration zones at Snow Lake are up to 20 km in strike length and 0.8 km wide. Their large exploration “footprint,” which is 36 times greater in areal extent compared to associated “pipe-like” alteration zones, means that such zones provide a useful target to “vector-in” exploration to VMS depositional settings within volcanic belts. The VMS-related large-scale alteration zones at Snow Lake display diagnostic variations in intensity and style of alteration along strike toward VMS deposits, are stratigraphically underlain by altered portions of synvolcanic intrusions, are crossed by discordant zones of more intensely altered rocks, and can be demonstrated to have formed by interaction with high-temperature(>350°C) hydrothermal fluids. Cu-Zn–rich VMS deposits at Snow Lake formed in flow-dominated sequences, are hosted by large rhyolite flow complexes, and comprise lensoid orebodies. In contrast, Zn-Cu–rich VMS deposits, although also rhyolite associated, formed in volcaniclastic-dominated sequences, are spatially related to a district aquifer, and comprise stratiform, laterally continuous orebodies. This suggests that exploration for Cu-Zn VMS deposits could selectively target flow-dominated sequences and focus on rhyolite flow complexes that display significant alteration. Similarly, exploration for Zn-Cu VMS deposits could focus on volcaniclastic-dominated sequences in which a potential aquifer has been identified.

Partial least squares-discriminant analysis of trace element compositions of magnetite from various VMS deposit subtypes: Application to mineral exploration

The petrography and mineral chemistry of magnetite from fifteen volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits in Canada, and the Lasail VMS deposit in Oman, as well as from two VMS-associated banded iron formations (BIF), Austin Brook (New Brunswick, Canada) and Izok Lake (Nunavut, Canada), were investigated using optical microscopy, electron probe micro-analyzer (EPMA), and laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). The method of robust estimation for compositional data (robCompositions) was applied to investigate geochemical censored data. Among thirty-seven elements analyzed by EPMA and/or LA-ICP-MS in magnetite from the studied deposits/bedrock lithologies, only the results for Si, Ca, Zr, Al, Mg, Ti, Zn, Co and Ni contain <40% censored values, and thus could be imputed using robCompositions. Imputed censored data were transformed using centered log-ratios to overcome the closure effect on compositional data. Transformed data were classified by partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) to identify different compositional characteristics of magnetite from VMS deposits and BIFs. The integration of petrography and mineral chemistry identifies three types of magnetite in VMS settings: magmatic, hydrothermal, and metamorphic. Magmatic magnetite in VMS deposit host bedrocks is characterized by ilmenite exsolution and may be overprinted by metamorphism. Some VMS deposits contain hydrothermal magnetite, which is intergrown with sulfides, and shows a metamorphic overprint as it is partly replaced by common metamorphic minerals including chlorite, sericite, anthophyllite, and/or actinolite, whereas the majority of the deposits are characterized by metamorphic magnetite formed by replacing pre-existing sulfides and/or silicates, and is intergrown with metamorphic minerals. Among VMS deposits of the Noranda mining district, the West Ansil deposit is characterized by hydrothermal-metamorphic magnetite zoned by inclusion-free cores and Si- and Mg-rich rims. Magnetite from the studied VMS-associated BIFs is also metamorphic in origin. Aluminum, Ti and Zn contents of magnetite can separate BIF from the other mineralized and un-mineralized bedrock lithologies in the studied VMS settings.PLS-DA shows that variable compositions of magnetite slightly discriminate different studied deposits/bedrock lithologies. The geochemical observations suggest that the variation in magnetite chemistry from different VMS settings might be sourced from differences in: 1) the composition and temperature of parental magmas or hydrothermal fluids, 2) the composition of host bedrocks, 3) the composition of co-forming minerals, and 4) oxygen fugacity. PLS-DA distinguishes magnetite compositions from the studied VMS deposits and BIFs from that of the other ore deposit types including Ni–Cu, porphyry Cu-Mo-Au, iron oxide-copper- gold, iron oxide-apatite, and the Bayan Obo REE-Fe-Nb deposit. Magnetite from the VMS settings on average contains lower concentrations of Si, Zr, Al, Mg, Ti, Zn, Co and Ni relative to that from the other mineral deposit types. PLS-DA of magnetite data from VMS deposits and BIFs of the Bathurst mining camp as well as PLS-DA of magnetite compositions from various mineral deposit types yield discrimination models for application to mineral exploration for VMS deposits using indicator minerals in Quaternary lithified sedimentary rocks.

Occurrence of a skarn-type mineralogy found in Ciénaga Marbles, located in the NW foothills of the Santa Marta Massif (Colombia)

&lt;p&gt;The early Cretaceous Ciénaga Marbles that crop out in the NW foothills of the Santa Marta Massif (Colombian Caribbean region) present an epigenetic mineral assemblage (skarn-type), overprinting the metamorphic mineral assemblage previously developed along the regional metamorphic history that affected this unit. The skarn-type mineralogy allows at least three paragenetic contexts to be distinguished, which are represented by the following neoformed minerals: (a) garnet, forsterite, diopside, titanite, wollastonite and calcite (early anhydrous metamorphic stage), (b) actinolite, tremolite, allanite and clinohumite (metasomatic or hydrated stage), and (c) chlorite, serpentine, sepiolite and quartz (late low temperature retrograde stage, probably due to infiltration of descending meteoric waters). The skarn-type mineralogy is observed as alteration halos developed around porphyritic granodiorites emplaced as sills between anisotropy planes related to metamorphic regional foliation of rock that are considered to be the causative bodies of the skarntype mineralogy. Zircon U-Pb ages obtained from granodioritic bodies yielded an age of 55.5±0.7 Ma (Ypresian, Early Eocene). The formation of the skarn-type mineralogy in the Ciénaga Marbles is temporarily related to the formation and emplacement of hydrated silicate masses that were generated at the beginning of the subduction polarity change (i.e. when the Caribbean oceanic plate began to subduct beneath South American continental plate).&lt;/p&gt;

Metamorphism and P–T evolution of high pressure granulite in Chicheng, northern part of the Paleoproterozoic Trans-North China Orogen

It is widely accepted that the North China Craton (NCC) was finally formed by collision of the Eastern and the Western Blocks along the Trans-North China Orogen (TNCO) at approximately 1.85Ga. The continent–continent collision along the TNCO was partly defined by metamorphism of high pressure mafic granulites with clockwise P–T paths. However, the continental subduction process has not been well recorded by previously reported HP granulites due to lack of prograde metamorphism and their plutonic protoliths. In this paper, we report HP mafic granulites among a metamorphic volcanic-sedimentary sequence south to Chicheng, northern part of the TNCO, in which the prograde metamorphism was well preserved. The prograde metamorphic stage (M1) has been revealed by a distinct growth zone of garnet (Grt) porphyroblasts with an inclusion-rich core and inclusion-free mantle. The peak metamorphic mineral assemblage (M2) consists of Grt and clinopyroxene (Cpx) predominantly with minor plagioclase (Pl), Rutile (Ru), hornblende (Hb) and quartz (Q). The Pl+Hb symplectite or corona surrounding garnet and Cpx+Ilm (ilmenite) symplectite surrounding sphene provide evidence for the post-peak decompression (M3) stage. Ubiquitous Hb especially along cracks represents further retrogression (M4) within amphibolite facies. Phase equilibria modeling by the THERMOCALC program combined with thermobarometric calculations yielded a consecutive hairpin shaped clockwise P–T path, which indicate that the HP granulites experienced remarkable prograde metamorphism, during which the temperatures increased from 630°C to 740°C while the pressures increased from 8kbar to the barometric peak of 16kbar. After the barometric peak, the HP granulites subjected to decompression from 16kbar to 13kbar while the temperature continued to increased from 750°C to 790°C, suggesting a thermal relaxation. After the thermal peak, the HP granulites began their consecutive decompression with cooling from 790°C and 13kbar to 700°C and 7kbar through 740°C and 9kbar, avoiding access to the orthopyroxene (Opx) stability field as experienced by many other HP granulites in the TNCO. The hairpin-shaped P–T path of the Chicheng HP granulites suggests a continuous continental subduction and tectonic uplift, providing a better metamorphic constraint on the final assembly of the NCC along the TNCO.

White mica 40Ar/39Ar age spectra and the timing of multiple episodes of high‐P metamorphic mineral growth in the Cycladic eclogite–blueschist belt, Syros, Aegean Sea, Greece

AbstractNew geochronology from Syros in the Cycladic eclogite–blueschist belt, Aegean Sea, Greece, shows that 40Ar/39Ar geochronology consistently dates microstructural events in metamorphic rocks. We demonstrate that the age spectra depend on microstructure in a predictable and systematic way. Ages can be inferred by applying the method of asymptotes and limits to data from the step‐heating experiments. The results are consistent with previously published estimates for the timing of a sequence of distinct and discrete episodes of high‐P metamorphic mineral growth observed regionally across this belt. Arrhenius plots from these experiments imply that phengitic white mica is highly retentive of argon, and therefore (if these data can be extrapolated to the natural environment) the ages can be interpreted as recording the timing of episodic deformation and metamorphism. Porphyroblastic growth begins: (i) for omphacite–jadeite–eclogite facies parageneses at c. 53 Ma; and (ii) for garnet–glaucophane facies parageneses at c. 47 Ma. The Kini Shear Zone started as an extensional post‐epidote–albite‐transitional–blueschist facies shear zone that had completed operation by c. 31 Ma. The scatter in ages is due to the effect of deformation, recrystallization and multiple growth events in shear zones that continued operating for 3–6 million years from the start of each episode.

Characterization of transpressive deformation in shear zones of the Archean North Caribou greenstone belt (NW Superior Province) and the relationship with regional metamorphism

The 2.7–3.0Ga North Caribou greenstone belt (NCGB), host to the Musselwhite BIF-hosted gold deposit, possesses abundant shear zones on its northern margins, which appear to have formed under amphibolite facies conditions. Protracted deformation and regional metamorphism are coeval with widespread magmatism and accretion events during crustal amalgamation of the Western Superior Province, and are responsible for folding the ore-hosting BIF and channeling fluids. The importance of shear zones in behaving as conduits for fluids during the tectonic evolution of the NCGB is not well known and their relationship with metamorphism is equivocal, yet higher-grade, syn- to post-tectonic metamorphic minerals seem to correlate with loci of higher strain. Structural analyses support oblique transpressive collision that produced steeply-dipping planar and shallowly-plunging linear fabrics with dominant dextral kinematics, that trend broadly parallel to the doubly arcuate shape of the belt. Electron backscatter diffraction analyses were conducted on strategic samples across one shear zone in order to characterize crustal conditions during transpressive deformation. The Dinnick Lake shear zone cuts through mafic metavolcanics and at its core is an L-tectonite granite composed of recrystallized quartz. Whole rock geochemistry shows little variation in Ca, Na, Mg and K (often used as indicators of hydrothermal alteration) from surrounding less deformed units, suggesting deformation in a dry environment. Microstructural analysis indicates subgrain rotation recrystallization and deformation by prism a- and c-slip in quartz, as well as aligned hornblende that suggest deformation temperatures above 500°C. Quartz in mafic rocks along the margins of the shear zone also exhibits a basal a-slip component, indicating a slight decrease in strain or temperature. Although the NCGB exhibits some first-order evidence of vertical tectonism (dome and keel geometries), the dominant strain record within shear zones is that of horizontal (oblique transpressive) displacement. This is in agreement with other greenstone belts in the Western Superior Province where vertical tectonism and horizontal tectonism were coeval.

Cretaceous mantle exhumation in the central Pyrenees: New constraints from the peridotites in eastern Ariège (North Pyrenean zone, France)

We provide new constraints on the modes of mantle exhumation and denudation in the pre-orogenic Pyrenees by investigating the poorly known peridotites located east of the Lherz body, in eastern Ariège (Vicdessos, Urs, Bestiac, Caussou and Prades main peridotitic bodies). We show that: (1) numerous peridotite bodies, not described so far, are constituted by decametric to sub-metric outcrops scattered between and around the main outcrops identified by Monchoux (1970); (2) most of the peridotites form blocks and lenses of various sizes, from millimetric monocrystalline grains to hectometric olistoliths, embedded in debris flows involving mainly Mesozoic metasediments; these peridotites can therefore be linked to the S-type peridotites of Lagabrielle et al. (2010), and share similarities with the peridotites of Lherz region (Clerc et al., 2012). All originated from tectono-sedimentary processes associated with mantle exhumation in relation with extreme thinning and breakoff of the continental basement; (3) the various petrographic characters of these peridotites and their heterogeneity in serpentinisation degree imply a peculiar mode of exhumation, which merges mantle fragments inherited from different structural levels; (4) the lack of tectonic structures such as faults and shear planes associated with the ultramafic-rich breccia formation and the presence of neoformation of metamorphic minerals within the matrix preclude their origin as cataclasites related to the Latest Cretaceous and Tertiary Pyrenean contractional deformation. The peridotites of eastern Ariège are indisputable witnesses of the presence of an inverted hyper-extended Cretaceous passive margin forming the current North Pyrenean zone. The geometry of the extensional system was complex and probably associated with strike-slip faults and transcurrent motion.

Petrogenesis and tectonic implications of Paleoproterozoic metapelitic rocks in the Archean Kongling Complex from the northern Yangtze Craton, South China

The Archean Kongling Complex in the northern Yangtze Craton is an ideal target to investigate the Precambrian accretion and evolution of continental crust in South China. This study aims to unravel the crustal evolution and tectonic setting of the Yangtze Craton during the Paleoproterozoic time, using integrated studies of petrography, zircon U–Pb and Hf isotopes and whole-rock geochemistry of Paleoproterozoic metapelitic rocks in the Kongling Complex. Four representative metapelitic rocks contain garnet, and three of them include high-temperature metamorphic minerals as sillimanite or staurolite. Zircons from the metapelitic rocks show nebulous-sector zoning and rim-core microstructures, suggesting a metamorphic origin or a detrital origin with metamorphic overprints. The metamorphic zircon grains and metamorphic overgrowths have concordant 207Pb/206Pb ages at ∼2.0Ga, while detrital grains yield three distinct age populations of >2.5Ga, 2.4–2.2Ga and 2.2–2.1Ga. The age patterns indicate that the depositional age of the metasedimentary rocks was 2.1–2.0Ga. Arc-related magma production represented by the Houhe gneiss in the northern part of the craton could be the source of the 2.2–2.1Ga inherited zircons, because of the similarities of whole-rock geochemical compositions and zircon U–Pb–Hf isotopic signatures between the investigated metapelitic rocks and the gneiss. The 2.4–2.2Ga zircons have Hf model ages (TDM2) of ∼3.5–2.6Ga, and the >2.5Ga zircons have TDM2 ages varying from 3.3Ga to 2.9Ga. Our data support previous knowledge that there were three episodes of growth and reworking events of the Archean Yangtze continental crust, ca. 3.3–3.2Ga, 2.9Ga, 2.7–2.6Ga, and show that the Yangtze Craton has experienced Paleoproterozoic reworking during 2.4–2.2Ga and the growth and reworking during 2.2–2.1Ga.Combined with available data, the new results in this study suggest a continent–arc–continent evolution model to explain the tectonic history of the Yangtze Craton during the Paleoproterozoic time. The western and eastern parts of Yangtze Craton were originally two individual continents with Archean basements. The western part of Yangtze Craton had undergone the crustal re-melting event during 2.4–2.2Ga and growth and reworking event caused by arc generation during 2.2–2.1Ga. It subsequently collided with the eastern part of Yangtze Craton at ∼2.0Ga and experienced later ∼1.85Ga extension.

Short-Wavelength Infrared (SWIR) spectroscopy of low-grade metamorphic volcanic rocks of the Pilbara Craton

This paper shows the results of Short-Wavelength Infrared (SWIR) spectroscopy investigations of volcanic rocks sampled from low-grade metamorphic greenstone belts of the Archean Pilbara Craton in Western Australia. From the reflectance spectra a range of spectrally active minerals were identified, including chlorites, hornblende, actinolite, epidote and white micas. The rock samples were grouped into mineral assemblages based on their spectrally identified minerals and stratigraphic positions. The metamorphic amphibolite and greenschist facies could be identified from the SWIR spectroscopic data as well as three sub zones of the greenschist facies: 1) a zone containing Fe-chlorite; 2) a zone containing intermediate chlorite and epidote; and 3) a zone containing intermediate chlorite, actinolite and hornblende. Spectral parameters were calculated from the reflectance spectra to assess the metamorphic grade and zones. Plots of the depth parameters of the Fe-OH feature near 2250 nm versus the Mg-OH feature near 2390 nm differentiate the metamorphic amphibolite and greenschist facies and a transition zone between the two. The wavelength position parameter of the Mg-OH absorption feature near 2340 nm also serves to discriminate between the various metamorphic sub zones.The identification of the metamorphic grades of the volcanic sequences in greenstone belts with SWIR spectroscopy is useful for regional geological field studies, exploration for metamorphic mineral deposits hosted in the greenstone belts and the interpretation of hyperspectral remote sensing data sets covering similar types of terranes.

Metaultramafic schists and dismembered ophiolites of the Ashe Metamorphic Suite of northwestern North Carolina, USA

ABSTRACTMetaultramafic rocks (MUR) in the Ashe Metamorphic Suite (AMS) of northwestern North Carolina include quartz ± feldspar-bearing QF-amphibolites and quartz-deficient, locally talc-, chlorite-, and/or Mg-amphibole-bearing TC-amphibolites. Some workers divide TC-amphibolites into Todd and Edmonds types, based on mineral and geochemical differences, and we provisionally add a third type – olivine ± pyroxene-rich, Rich Mountain-type rocks. Regionally, MUR bodies range from equant, Rich Mountain- to highly elongate, Todd-TC-amphibolite-type bodies. The MURs exhibit three to five mineral associations containing assemblages with olivine, anthophyllitic amphibole, Mg-hornblende, Mg-actinolite, cummingtonite, and serpentine representing decreasing eclogite to greenschist facies grades of metamorphism over time. MUR protoliths are difficult to determine. Southwestern MUR bodies have remnant olivine ± pyroxene-rich assemblages representing ultrabasic-basic, dunite-peridotite-pyroxenite protoliths. Northeastern TC-amphibolite MURs contain hornblende and actinolitic amphiboles plus chlorites – aluminous and calcic assemblages suggesting to some that metasomatism of basic, QF-amphibolites yields all TC-amphibolites. Yet MgO-CaO-Al2O3 and trace element chemistries of many TC-amphibolites resemble compositions of plagioclase peridotites. We show that a few AMS TC-amphibolites had basaltic/gabbroic protoliths, while presenting arguments opposing application of the metasomatic hypothesis to all TC-amphibolites. We establish that MUR bodies are petrologically heterolithic and that TC-amphibolites are in contact with many rock types; that those with high Cr, Ni, and Mg have olivine- or pyroxene-dominated protoliths; that most exhibit three or more metamorphic mineral associations; and that contacts thought to be metasomatic are structural. Clearly, different MUR bodies have different chemistries representing various protoliths, and have different mineral assemblages, reflecting both chemical composition and metamorphic history. Spot sampling of heterolithic MUR bodies does not reveal MUR body character or history or allow ‘type’ designations. We recommend that the subdivision of MUR bodies into ‘types’ be abandoned and that the metasomatic hypothesis be carefully applied. AMS MURs and associated metamafic rocks likely represent fragments of dismembered ophiolites from various ophiolite types.

Spinifex-textured komatiites in the south border of the Carajas ridge, Selva Greenstone belt, Carajás Province, Brazil

Spinifex-textured komatiites in the Selva greenstone belt are the first unequivocal examples of komatiites in the Transition Subdomain of the Carajás Mineral Province. Outcrops of spinifex-textured komatiites, located ∼1.5 km to the south of the Carajás ridge, were discovered during regional exploration for Ni–Cu–(PGE) sulfide deposits by VALE. They are associated with a 3.8 km long unit consisting of variable types of ultramafic rocks (talc schist, serpentinite and spinifex-textured komatiite). This ultramafic unit follows the steep dipping NW–SE trending Selva greenstone belt composed mainly by quartz-chlorite schists (interpreted as metasediments) and chlorite-actinolite schists (interpreted as metabasalts). Greenschist facies metamorphic parageneses characterize all rock types in the Selva greenstone belt.The komatiitic rocks in the Selva belt comprise a sequence of flows consisting of an upper spinifex-textured layer and a lower olivine cumulate layer. Although the spinifex and cumulus textures are well preserved in the field, the primary mineralogy of the komatiites has been completely replaced by greenschist facies metamorphic minerals. Platy olivine spinifex texture, consisting of an array of roughly parallel olivine plates, and random spinifex texture, consisting of randomly oriented olivine plates, are the most common primary volcanic textures in komatiites in the Selva greenstone belt. Platy and random spinifex texture is defined by former plates of olivine replaced by serpentine with minor actinolite, chlorite and magnetite, alternating with former matrix replaced by abundant actinolite and minor chlorite, talc, serpentine, and magnetite. The domains between olivine plates in both platy and random spinifex-textured rocks contain irregular arrays of fine-grained parallel crystals, representing primary fine-grained “quench” clinopyroxene crystals replaced by actinolite.Spinifex-textured komatiites have MgO contents bracket between 22.8 and 26.9 wt.%, and cumulate textured komatiites have MgO contents up to 40.6 wt.%. When plotted vs MgO contents, most major and minor elements fall on well-defined linear trends indicating control by olivine fractionation or accumulation. Komatiites from the Selva and Seringa (located in the Rio Maria Domain) belts are Al-undepleted with Al2O3/TiO2 ratios close to 20. Results for CaO, Na2O, and REE suggest that these elements were mobile and their abundances have been modified during metasomatic alteration. REE contents in some samples are very high (up to 40 times primitive mantle values) and REE patterns vary from flat (La/YbMN ∼ 1) to highly enriched in LREE (La/YbMN up to ∼ 10). The REE mobility may be related to hydrothermal alteration associated to Cu–Au mineralization in the region.The identification of spinifex-textured komatiites close to the Carajás Basin suggests the continuation of 3.0–2.9 Ga greenstone belts of the Rio Maria Domain within the Transition Subdomain, and enlarges the area with potential to host komatiite-associated Ni–Cu–PGE deposits.