Metal Work Research Articles

Electrochemical Oxidation of 4-(Hydroxymethyl)Benzoic Acid

We have investigated the electrochemical oxidation of 4-(hydroxymethyl)benzoic acid (4-HMBA) on different metallic working electrodes in alkaline electrolytes, including gold (Au), nickel (Ni), and platinum (Pt) metal. Au shows the lowest onset potential for catalyzing the electrooxidation of 4-HMBA among the three metals in base, whereas Pt does not catalyze the electrooxidation of 4-HMBA under alkaline conditions. The products of electrochemical oxidation of 4-HMBA catalyzed on Au working electrode are 4-carboxybenzaldehyde and terephthalic acid analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography. The electrodeposited Au nanostructures on indium tin oxide (ITO)-coated glass is further utilized as the working electrode and catalyst for the 4-HMBA electrooxidation by introducing the plasmonic effects of the Au nanostructures. With the broad absorption of the Au nanostructures anchored on the ITO substrate in the visible and near-infrared range, we show that they could enhance the electrochemical oxidation of 4-HMBA under green and red LED light illuminations. The plasmonic effects of the Au nanostructures are proposed to contribute to the enhancement of the reaction and the photothermal effect is excluded based on electrolyte-temperature-dependent measurements. A possible reaction mechanism is proposed for the electrochemical oxidation of 4-HMBA on Au working electrodes in an alkaline electrolyte. Ongoing work focuses on investigating the electrochemical oxidation of electronically unique aromatic substituents of 4-HMBA and the plasmonic effects from the Au nanostructure electrodes in assisting other electrochemical reactions.

Performance Analysis of CdS‐Free, Sb2Se3/ZnSe p–n Junction Cells with Various Hole Transport Layers and Contacts

AbstractSb2Se3, a promising thin‐film photovoltaic (TFPV) absorber material known for its non‐toxic nature, abundance on Earth, and stability has the inherent limitations of low doping density of 1013 cm−3 and poor carrier mobility of 1.5 cm2 V−1 s−1, leading to a low built‐in potential and inefficient carrier collection. To address these challenges and enhance the built‐in potential and carrier collection, an effective hole‐transport layer (HTL), e.g. CdS, which contains toxic components is used. A less‐toxic alternative is explored: ZnSe as the electron‐transport layer (ETL) to mitigate this issue. In this study, the performance is evaluated of Sb2Se3/ZnSe solar cells using six different HTLs (CuSCN, MoSe2, NiO, Spiro‐OMeTAD, SnS, MoOx) through the utilization of the SCAPS‐1D modeling tool. The HTL plays a critical role in improving the effectiveness of the built‐in potential, enhancing carrier collection, and suppressing back surface recombination. The analysis involves varying the thickness and doping concentration of the absorber, buffer, and HTLs, and exploring the impact of temperature, series and shunt resistance, and the metal work function of the back contact. Among the tested devices, the one with NiO as the HTL demonstrates the highest efficiency, exhibiting a VOC (open‐circuit voltage) of 0.81 V and a PCE (power conversion efficiency) of 24.07%.

Density functional analysis of oxide dipole layer voltage shifts in high κ/metal gate stacks

The mechanism of gate threshold voltage (VT) shifts observed in high κ/metal gate stacks is investigated by a density functional theory. This finds that VT depends on the band alignments and the chemical trends between the component oxide layers, such as HfO2, SrO, La2O3, Al2O3, and SiO2. Based on the electron counting rule, we have built three insulating SiO2/SrO, SiO2/La2O3, and SiO2/Al2O3 interfaces, all of which feature a clean bandgap. Two methods have been adopted to derive the band alignments between these four oxides, which are consistent with each other. The results show staggered, “staircase” band alignments and enable La2O3 and Al2O3 layers to shift the metal electrode Fermi level in opposite directions and to approach the Si conduction band and valence band edge positions, respectively. This analysis updates previous empirical models of this effect based on metal oxide ion densities or electronegativity scales and confirms that the oxide layer scheme is suitable for controlling the effective metal work functions in metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors.

Predicting metalwork following posterior fixation of thoracolumbar fractures.

Surgical fusion through posterior instrumentation and pedicle screw placement is a long established method for stabilising traumatic spinal fractures. Post-surgical complications include infection and metal work failure, the most common aetiology of which is pedicle screw fracture. Metal work failure rates vary from 15% to 60%. Research relating to factors which predict metal work failure in post-traumatic thoracolumbar spinal fixation is lacking. This study aimed to identify potential risk factors for metalwork failure in patients who had posterior fixation for traumatic thoracolumbar spine fractures. This retrospective cohort analysis was conducted by interrogating the hospital database for neurosurgical post-traumatic thoracolumbar fixation cases between 2015 and 2018 with at least 2 years follow up. Data was collected through electronic medical notes and PACS. Nineteen different patient factors (gender, age, mechanism of injury, presence of concomitant injury spinal or extra-spinal injury, pedicle cross-sectional area, pedicle cancellous bone density, pedicle total bone density, vertebral body bone density, erector spinae muscle density and lumbar spine subcutaneous fat thickness, Charlson comorbidity index, fracture location, surgical approach, long/short segment fixation, whether decompression was done, whether the index level was fixed, and presence of wound infection) were compared. We identified 92 patients with 97 operations, and 9 cases of metal work failure. Two factors were statistically significantly associated with metal work failure: Post-operative wound infection (p = 0.029) and lumbar spine fat thickness (p = 0.024). The relative risk calculated in patients with a wound infection was 3.76. Lumbar spine fat thickness was on average 11.9 mm greater than patients not experiencing metal work failure. This study has identified two factors associated with increased rates of metal work failure: Post-operative wound infection and lumbar spine fat thickness. When assessing surgical candidates these factors may be incorporated into surgical planning.

Occupational exposure to potentially toxic elements alters gene expression profiles in formal and informal Brazilian workers

Chemical elements, such as toxic metals, have previously demonstrated their ability to alter gene expression in humans and other species. In this study, microarray analysis was used to compare the gene expression profiles of different occupational exposure populations: a) informal workers who perform soldering of jewelry inside their houses (n = 22) in São Paulo (SP) State; and b) formal workers from a steel company (n = 10) in Rio de Janeiro (RJ) state, Brazil. Control participants were recruited from the same neighborhoods without occupational chemical exposure (n = 19 in SP and n = 8 in RJ). A total of 68 blood samples were collected and RNA was extracted and hybridized using an Agilent microarray platform. Data pre-processing, statistical and pathway analysis were performed using GeneSpring software. Different expression was detected by fold-change analysis resulting in 16 up- and 33 down-regulated genes in informal workers compared to the control group. Pathway analysis revealed genes enriched in MAPK, Toll-like receptor, and NF-kappa B signaling pathways, involved in inflammatory and immune responses. In formal workers, 20 up- and 50 down-regulated genes were found related to antimicrobial peptides, defensins, neutrophil degranulation, Fc-gamma receptor-dependent phagocytosis, and pathways associated with atherosclerosis development, which is one of the main factors involved in the progression of cardiovascular diseases. The gene IFI27 was the only one commonly differentially expressed between informal and formal workers and is known to be associated with various types of cancer. In conclusion, differences in gene expression related to occupational exposure are mainly associated with inflammation and immune response. Previous research has identified a link between inflammation and immune responses and the development of chronic diseases, suggesting that prolonged occupational exposures to potentially toxic elements in Brazilian metal workers could lead to negative health outcomes. Further analysis should be carried out to investigate its direct effects and to validate causal associations.

In-process grain refinement on AA5052-H32 sheet metal in single-stage single point square hole flanging

Hole flanging in sheet metal work can be performed by single point incremental forming. It has been explored by researchers for a decade. Further efforts should be made to decrease the operation time and to improve the mechanical properties of the end product obtained by the forming method. In this direction, a new approach to achieve in-process grain refinement on the aluminium 5052-H32 sheet during single point incremental hole flanging has been presented in this work. Square flanges are formed by a low frequency vibration-assisted method using a novel tool with the single-stage approach. Results show that grain refinement was achieved on the square flanges by the proposed tool and the hardness increased. Moreover, a study on the thickness of the flange, the height of the flange, and surface quality has been presented.

Fabrication of wire drawing machine

Wire drawing is a metal working process used to reduce the cross-section of a wire by pulling the wire through a single, or series of, drawing dies. There are many applications for wire drawing, including electrical wiring, cables, tension loaded structural components, springs, paper clips, spokes for wheels, and stringed musical instruments. Although similar in process, drawing is different from extrusion, because in drawing the wire is pulled, rather than pushed, through the die. Drawing is usually performed at room temperature, thus classified as a cold working process, but it may be performed at elevated temperatures for large wires to reduce forces. The main objective of this project is to Fabrication of Wire Drawing Machine for reducing the silver and gold wire diameter.

Simulation and analysis of high-performance hole transport material SrZrS3-based perovskite solar cells with a theoretical efficiency approaching 26%

To process the toxicity and stability issues of hybrid lead halide perovskites, we suggest chalcogenide perovskites as an actual alternative family of material-based solar cells. Zr-based chalcogenides AZrS3 (A = Ba, Ca, or Sr) are the most studied family of chalcogenide perovskites for optoelectronic applications, thanks to their low cost, strong absorbency, and high PCE. A device simulation of SrZrS3 as an absorbing material solar cell, as well as a proposal of low-cost Hole Transport Materials HTMs (Cu2O, CuSCN, and NiOx), were achieved by using the software SCAPS-1D. The key parameters (thickness, doping concentration (NA), and temperature) for each configuration are varied to inspect their impact on the device’s performance. In the interest of replacing the highly expensive gold (Au) electrode, the functionality of the metal work function was also investigated. As a result, we have found that for SrZrS3, the optimized configuration is: Ni (metal back contact)/NiOx (HTM)/SrZrS3 (Absorber)/ZnO (ETM)/FTO, which delivered at 400 K: a PCE of 25.97%, a VOC of 1.18 V, a JSC of 26.13 mA/cm2 and an FF of 84.29%.

Hypersensitivity pneumonitis due to metal working fluids: Detection of specific IgG antibodies to microbial antigens

Occupational exposure to microbially contaminated metal working fluids (MWF) can cause hypersensitivity pneumonitis (HP). An important step in the diagnosis of HP is to identify the triggering antigen by detection of corresponding specific IgG antibodies (sIgG). As commercial sIgG tests are currently not available, protein antigens were prepared from MWF-workplace samples and from MWF-typical bacterial isolates. In 57 % of suspected HP-cases (n = 30) elevated sIgG concentrations were measured to at least one MWF-relevant antigen, of which Mycobacterium immunogenum was most prominent (88 %), followed by Pseudomonas oleovorans and Pseudomonas spec (82 % each), MWF-antigen mix and Pseudomonas alcaliphila (65 % each). Elevated sIgG concentrations to other microorganisms were measured to Micropolyspora faeni (82 %) and Aureobasidium pullulans (77 %). Correlation of sIgG values of all tested microbial antigens showed a significant relationship of MWF-antigen mixture to Pseudomonas antigens, but a low correlation to moulds. These newly prepared MWF-antigens are useful tools for the diagnosis of patients with suspected MWF-HP and are available for further investigations.

Impact of tin-based perovskite as a hole transport layer on the device performance of stable and 27.10% efficient CdTe-based solar cell by numerical simulation

In this work, a numerical simulation study on cadmium telluride (CdTe)-based thin film solar cell structure utilizing CdTe as absorber layer, Cadmium sulphide (CdS) as window layer, and lead-free perovskite (CH3NH3SnBr3) as a hole transport layer (HTL) is presented for the first time. The effect of different material parameters such as shallow uniform acceptor density (NA) of absorber and HTL, thicknesses of absorber and HTL, Electron affinity of HTL, defect density of absorber layer, series and shunt resistance, back contact metal work function, and operating temperature on photovoltaic (PV) parameters such as open-circuit voltage (Voc), short circuit current (Jsc), fill factor (FF), and photo conversion efficiency (PCE) has been studied. With the introduction of perovskite as HTL, it is observed that Voc increased from 0.66 V to 1.17 V by creating a suitable band alignment with the CdTe absorber layer, causing an improvement in efficiency by preventing carrier recombination at the back contact surface. The designed solar cell has shown an enhanced PCE of 27.10% with Voc ∼1.17 V, Jsc ∼27.76 mA/cm2, and FF ∼83.40%. Thus, from the study, it is possible to achieve high-performance CdTe-based solar cells using perovskite as HTL for photovoltaic applications.

Novel manufacturing of intelligent hierarchical molybdenum-polydopamine hollow nanocarriers for smart coating

Novel hierarchical molybdenum-polydopamine nanocarriers (SMPDA) for hosting the inhibitors in the redesigned molybdenum-polydopamine-Zn2+ (SMPDA@Zn) form were utilized in the epoxy-based (EP) coating formulation to reinforce the barrier / self-healing functions. In the present study advanced FTIR, Raman, XRD, FESEM-EDS, MAP, TEM, BET, ICP-OES, EIS, PDP, OCP, salt spray, cathodic delamination, and pull-off appraisals techniques were employed to assess the influence of hierarchical nanocarriers in the solution and active / passive properties of epoxy coatings. The conspicuous impermeable hybrid films composed of Fe2+/3+-MoO42−, Fe2+/3+-polydopamine, Fe2+/3+-MoO42−-polydopamine and ZnO / Zn(OH)2 on active sites of mild steel in a saline solution comprising the SMPDA@Zn and SMPDA extract would supply %80 and %57 inhibition efficiency, respectively. Active corrosion protection in reference to Rtotal (Rct + Rf) 44463.1, 41879.3, and 9176.3 KΩ cm2 after 72 h immersion for composite and conventional EP coatings by plugging the polymeric film pores as well as healing the defects, intentionally created on the surface were enhanced interestingly up to 4.8 and 4.5 times. The superiority of the incorporated coatings was also obvious in the pull-off and cathodic disbanding tests so a delamination area reduction of %73 was recorded in the presence of the hierarchical nanocarriers. The present study illuminated new horizons in materials science and engineering on the potential usage of durable self-healing primer epoxy-based EPSZ and EPSM coatings in assorted industries like oil and gas pipelines, marine, and offshore infrastructure industries, refineries, petrochemical plants, non-renewable power plants, sheet metal working of shipbuilding, and subsea equipment.

Work related eye injuries: Epidemiology in a tertiary care eye hospital of South India

Background: Work related eye injuries are one of the common causes for preventable vision loss. The aim of the study was to analyse the epidemiological characteristics of work related eye injury in a tertiary care eye hospital in South India. Methodology: This prospective observational study included all patients who reported to ophthalmic outpatient department with work related eye injury during the study period. Results: Out of the 416 patients, majority were males. The injuries were common in younger age group. Metal welding and grinding, and agriculture were the high risk occupations for work related eye injuries. Corneal foreign body was the most common type of eye injury noted. Most of the patients were not using protective eye gear at the time of injury. About 7.2% of the patients had previous history of eye injury at work place. Conclusion: As work related eye injury is common in younger age group early intervention is required in order to avoid permanent visual impairment. Specific interventional programmes should be considered as these workers are prone for recurrent eye injuries. There is a need for more effective preventive measures, especially in metal work, agriculture and carpentry, where increased frequency and worst prognoses of injuries were observed.

Evidence of Improved Thermal Stability via Nanoscale Contact Engineering in IGZO Source-Gated Thin-Film Transistors

Despite rapidly expanding interest in thin-film source-gated transistors (SGTs), the high-temperature dependence of drain current (TDDC) in devices comprising Schottky source barriers is delaying wide adoption. To reduce this effect, alternative source designs have been theorized. Specifically, introducing additional nanoscale layers at the source contact should facilitate the tunneling of charge carriers at the Fermi energy level with negligible TDDC. Here, we fabricate amorphous In <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$_{\text{2}}$</tex-math> </inline-formula> Ga <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$_{\text{2}}$</tex-math> </inline-formula> ZnO <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$_{\text{7}}$</tex-math> </inline-formula> tunnel-contact SGTs (TC-SGTs) with three times lower TDDC than polysilicon transistors with Schottky contacts. Numerical simulations help elucidate the control mechanisms. We show that the potential profile across the semiconductor in the bulk of the source-gate overlap region determines injection current, and the introduction of a thin interfacial layer at the contact reduces the role of the contact metal work function (WF) in current control and associated temperature effects. This device architecture adds improved thermal stability to the long list of SGT benefits, including low voltage saturation, power-efficient operation, high intrinsic gain, device-to-device uniformity, and robustness to mechanical and electrical stress.

Numerical analysis of Cs2AgBiBr6 double-perovskite solar cell with optimized performance

Double-perovskite solar cells (DPSCs) are environment-friendly materials used for the efficient conversion of solar energy to electrical energy, enabling significant growth in the development of the photovoltaic community. In this study, the Solar Cell Capacitance Simulator in One Dimension (SCAPS-1D) software was used for the study of Cs2AgBiBr6 absorber-based DPSCs with tin (IV) oxide (SnO2) and molybdenum trioxide (MoO3) as the electron transport layer and hole transport layer, respectively. Parameters such as short-circuit current density (J sc), fill factor (FF), open-circuit voltage (V oc), power conversion efficiency (PCE) and quantum efficiency were analyzed under different working temperatures, absorber thicknesses, metal work functions and defect concentrations. After the optimization of the device, the following electrical parameters of perovskite solar cells were obtained: a PCE of 11.41%, a J sc of 9.4741 mA/cm2, an FF of 72.61% and a V oc of 1.419 V. This configuration allows characterization of the basic solar cell features necessary to achieve high-performance outcomes for photovoltaic devices.

Changes in Lipid biomarker related to trauma severity in intertrochanteric fracture patients.

This study aimed to identify whether there are elevations or declines in specific plasma lipids in intertrochanteric fracture (ITF) patients which might serve as potential biomarkers for assessing the severity of trauma, or therapeutic targets for controlling post-traumatic responses. Ten metal work removal patients were enrolled. Their preoperative blood samples served as the control group (C group). Their 24-hour postoperative blood samples served as the moderate trauma group (M group). The ITF group was composed of 12 intertrochanteric fracture patients. A total of 707 lipid species were identified from 32 plasma samples (10 controls, 10 moderate trauma and 12 ITF samples). We first identified 31 lipids that were elevated and 6 lipids that were decreased in the more severe trauma group in aged patients, with an especially strong relationship among 14 lipids that are candidates as markers for trauma severity evaluation. Fourteen lipids were identified as potential markers of bone trauma. The definition of important lipids in trauma may not only provide guidance for the formulation of optimum ITF operation time, but may also have importance in other traumatic models, and in further understanding the components of the systemic inflammatory response for new drug targets.

A Literature Review on Fabrication of Portable Spot Welding Machine

Abstract: Welding is a process of joining similar metals by the application of heat. Welding can be done with or without the application of pressure. While welding, the edges of metal pieces are either melted or brought to plastic condition. Welding can be done with the addition of filler materials or without it welding is used for making permanent joints. It is used in the manufacture of automobile bodies, aircraft frames, railways wagons, machine frames, structural work, tanks, furniture, boilers, general repair work and ship building. At most in all metal working industries welding is used. In this project we are making portable spot welding machine , which will be easy carry and will be used in many filed.

Resource implications of managing paediatric femoral fractures in a major trauma centre: Analysis of 98 cases

IntroductionThe management of paediatric femoral shaft fractures is expensive and is guided by age and fracture characteristics. The primary aim of this study was to perform a cost evaluation for managing paediatric femoral shaft fractures. The secondary aim of this study was to perform and compare costs of the different techniques of managing paediatric femoral shaft fractures. MethodsNinety-eight femoral shaft fractures in children aged ≤16 were identified between 01/06/2014–30/06/2019. Retrospective data of clinical complications were obtained on infection, malunion and non-union. Data on additional intervention, reoperations for complications and routine removal of metal work were obtained. Costing analysis was performed by a bottom-up calculation, and gathering Patient Level Information and Costing System (PLICS) data. ResultsThere were 41 hip spica casting (HSC), 21 flexible intramedullary nailing (FIN), 14 submuscular plating (SMP), 19 rigid intramedullary nailing (RIN) and 3 external fixation (EF). Complications observed were HSC 3(7%); FIN 8(38%); SMP 2(14%); RIN 1(5%); EF 2(67%). The total costs for managing femoral shaft fractures were £8,955pp the costs for the different managements were; HSC £3,442pp; FIN £7,739pp; SMP £6,953pp; RIN £8,925pp; EF £19,116pp. The additional costs incurred for managing complications and routine removal of metal work for the internal fixation methods were: HSC 0.7%, FIN 23.7%, SMP 16.3%, RIN 10.9%, EF 28.1%. ConclusionThe operative management of paediatric femoral shaft fractures is associated with a high cost burden and this study demonstrates how financial data can be used to influence clinical management strategy. RIN carry a high initial implant cost however when considering the additional costs, such as treating complications it remains comparable to other modes of fixation. Our cost analysis did not demonstrate a significant difference between FIN, SMP and RIN. Due to the clinical complications observed and associated additional costs, we have discontinued the routine use of FIN for femoral shaft fractures at our centre. We recognise other centres may have a different complication and cost profile for each technique, but recommend they evaluate their practice given the potential economic benefit it has on the service provider.

Optical measurement approach to analyse the tool-workpiece interacting flow of grinding processes

Investigations of the coolant flow within a running grinding machine are carried out to examine the flow behaviour of the coolant in interaction with the grinding wheel and the workpiece. The aim of the investigations is to understand the interaction between fluid, workpiece and tool, to eventually correlate flow dynamics with cooling efficiency. Flow measurements are obtained with Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV), utilising the visualisation of flow structures of the metal working fluid (MWF). Measurements without workpiece provide a fundamental understanding of the MWF-tool interaction, i.e. the flow deflection and entrainment of the MWF with the tool. A limitation of the MWF entrainment into the contact zone occurs for higher inflow velocities, indicating a maximum cooling capacity for inflow velocities around 80% of the circumferential velocity of the tool.To enable the investigation of the MWF-tool-workpiece interaction, an optical transparent workpiece is designed and implemented into the grinding machine. Flow measurements in the decreasing gap between the workpiece and the rotating grinding wheel reveal a deceleration stagnation of the flow before the beginning of the contact zone. As a result, the PIV-based measurements of the time-averaged MWF flow field in the running grinding machine provide the necessary data basis to understand the flow-based cooling mechanisms in grinding processes. For varying inflow velocities, a nearly constant position of the stagnant flow area is measured, confirming the shown results of a maximum useful flow rate.

Simulation of MASnI3-based inverted perovskite solar cells with double hole transport layers and an electron transport layer

A model of CH3NH3SnI3 (MASnI3)-based inverted perovskite solar cell (PSC) with double hole transport layers (HTLs) and an electron transport layer (ETL) was established, and the device was studied using solar capacitance simulator (SCAPS). Compared with a single HTL, the double HTLs of CuI/MoO3 can improve device performance significantly. Among six ETLs, WS2 has been found to be the best ETL. Then, the effects of absorber layer thickness, CuI/MoO3 thickness, the defect density and doping density of the absorption layer, and metal electrode work function on device performance have been investigated in detail. According to the simulation results, the optimum thickness of MASnI3 is 500 nm, and the both CuI and MoO3 layers should be as thick as 20 nm. To achieve the ideal efficiency, the defect density of the absorption layer should be as low as 1 × 1014 cm−3, and its doping density should be 1 × 1016 cm−3. Moreover, the metal work function should be less than 4.42 eV to avoid the formation of a Schottky barrier at the WS2/metal interface. After optimization, the device can reach the highest efficiency of 28.13%. Our simulation results will help advance the manufacturing of high-performance Pb-free perovskite solar cells in the future.

Epidemiological aspect of retinoblastoma in the world: a review of recent advance studies.

To collect and present updated evidence about epidemiological aspects of retinoblastoma (Rb) in the world. A comprehensive search without the time and language restrictions was conducted in international databases, including MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed. The search keywords were "retinoblastoma" OR "retinal Neuroblastoma" OR "retinal glioma" OR "retinoblastoma eye cancer" OR "retinal glioblastoma". The worldwide incidence of Rb is 1 in 16 000-28 000 live births, but was higher in developing compared to developed countries. Several attempts for improving early detection and treatment had increased the Rb survival rate from 5% to 90% in developed countries over the past decade, but its survival was lower in developing countries (about 40% in low-income countries) and the majority of mortalities occurred in developing countries. The etiology of Rb could be viewed as genetics in the heritable form and environmental and lifestyle factors in the sporadic form. Some environmental risk factors such as in vitro fertilization; insect sprays; father's occupational exposure to oil mists in metal working, and poor living conditions might play a role in the occurrence of the disease. Although ethnicity might affect Rb incidence, sex has no documented effect and the best treatment approaches were now ophthalmic artery chemosurgery and intravitreal chemotherapy. Determining the role of genetics and environmental factors helps to accurately predict the prognosis and identify the mechanism of the disease, which can reduce the risk of tumor development.