Metal-metal Bond Research Articles

CO2 and SO2 activation by a Cr-Cr quintuple bond.

A quintuply bonded dichromium complex stabilized by aminopyridinato ligands activates CO2 and SO2 by reducing the (formal) bond order of the metal-metal bonds. Oxygen abstraction is observed during CO2 activation. SO2 activation proceeds via formation of a unique dithionite complex/coordination. Furthermore, N2O activation was investigated and the formation of a tetrameric Cr-oxo complex was observed.

Electronic control of the protonation rates of Fe-Fe bonds.

Protonation at metal-metal bonds is of fundamental interest in the context of the function of the active sites of hydrogenases and nitrogenases. In diiron dithiolate complexes bearing carbonyl and electron-donating ligands, the metal-metal bond is the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) with a "bent" geometry. Here we show that the experimentally measured rates of protonation (kH) of this bond and the energy of the HOMO as measured by the oxidation potential of the complexes (E1/2(ox)) correlate in a linear free energy relationship: ln kH = ((F(c - βE1/2(ox)))/(RT)), where c is a constant and β is the dimensionless Brønsted coefficient. The value of β of 0.68 is indicative of a strong dependence upon energy of the HOMO: measured rates of protonation vary over 6 orders of magnitude for a change in E1/2(ox) of ca. 0.55 V (ca. 11 orders of magnitude/V). This relationship allows prediction of protonation rates of systems that are either too fast to measure experimentally or that possess additional protonation sites. It is further suggested that the nature of the bridgehead in the dithiolate ligand can exert a stereoelectronic influence: bulky substituents destabilize the HOMO, thereby increasing the rate of protonation.

The effect of the nature of peripheral platinated and bridging mercapto ligands on the optical and electrochemical properties of binuclear Pt(II) complexes with a metal-metal chemical bond

The effect of heterocyclic metalated and bridging ligands on the optical and electrochemical properties of [Pt(C^N)(μ-N^S)]2 complexes ((C^N)− and (N^S)− are the deprotonated forms of 1-phenylpyrazole, 2-tolylpyridine, benzo[h]quinoline, 2-phenylbenzothiazole and 2-mercaptobenzothiazole, 2-mercaptobenzoxazole, 2-mercaptopyridine) is studied by 1H NMR, electronic absorption, and emission spectroscopy, as well as by voltammetry. The long-wavelength spin-allowed (415–540 nm) absorption bands of the complexes are attributed to the metal-metal-to-ligand charge transfer (MMLCT) optical transitions. It is shown that the interaction of the dZ2 and π(C^N*) orbitals of two {Pt(C^N)} fragments of binuclear complexes leads to a cathodic shift (0.5–1.0 V) of their metal-centered oxidation potential and to an anodic shift (0.1–0.2 V) of their ligand-centered reduction potential with respect to [Pt(C^N)En]+ complexes. The luminescence of binuclear complexes in solutions at room temperature is assigned to the spin-forbidden MMLCT transition. It is shown that, in frozen (77 K) solutions, in addition to the MMLCT optical transitions, spin-forbidden radiative processes occur from the intraligand (π(C^N)−π(C^N)*) and metal-to-ligand charge transfer (dPt−π(C^N)*) excited states.

Mechanical properties and structural features of novel Fe-based bulk metallic glasses with unprecedented plasticity.

Fe-based bulk metallic glasses (BMGs) have attracted great attention due to their unique magnetic and mechanical properties, but few applications have been materialized because of their brittleness at room temperature. Here we report a new Fe50Ni30P13C7 BMG which exhibits unprecedented compressive plasticity (>20%) at room temperature without final fracture. The mechanism of unprecedented plasticity for this new Fe-based BMG was also investigated. It was discovered that the ductile Fe50Ni30P13C7 BMG is composed of unique clusters mainly linked by less directional metal-metal bonds which are inclined to accommodate shear strain and absorbed energy in the front of crack tip. This conclusion was further verified by the X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy experiments of Fe80-xNixP13C7 (x = 0, 10, 20, 30) and Fe72-xNixB20Si4Nb4 (x = 0, 7.2, 14.4, 21.6, 28.8) glassy systems. The results also indicate a strong correlation between the p-d hybridization and plasticity, verifying that the transition from brittle to ductile induced by Ni addition is due to the change of bonding characteristics in atomic configurations. Thus, we can design the plasticity of Fe-based BMGs and open up a new possible pathway for manufacturing BMGs with high strength and plasticity.

Large Area Plan-View Transmission Electron Microscopy Sample Preparation for Direct-Bonded Interfaces

Metal-metal bonding, and in particular Au-Au bonding, is frequently used for both MEMs structures and for integration of combining different device structures, including III-V and silicon integration.1 High bond strength, accompanied with good electrical conductivity and hermeticity are often achieved when grain growth occurs across the metal-metal bond interface. Usually, this type of grain growth requires elevated temperatures and longer annealing times and has been studied for Cu-Cu bonding, but not for Au-Au bonding. However, the conditions which most effectively initiate the grain growth across either of this bonded interface have not been clearly elucidated. We established that the preferential growth of a particular grain across Au-Au bond interfaces is enabled through an epitaxial transformation. Au (111) grains on one side of the interface grew into the other side – albeit with nanovoids remaining at the original interface. The microstructure of the transformed side consisted initially of nanotwinned, columnar Au while the grains that extended across the interface were initially randomly oriented under thermocompression bonding conditions. High resolution transmission electron microscopy measurements addressed the orientation dependence of the growing grains. This indicates that microstructure control in metal-metal bond pairs can impact the resultant grain structure and hence other properties.

Open-shell character and second hyperpolarizabilities of one-dimensional chromium(II) chains: size dependence and bond-length alternation effect.

Using the long-range corrected spin-unrestricted density functional theory (LC-UBLYP) method, we have investigated the longitudinal third-order nonlinear optical (NLO) properties, i.e., the second hyperpolarizabilities γ of open-shell singlet one-dimensional (1D) extended metal atom chain (EMAC) systems, chromium(II) chains Cr(II)2n (n = 1-4), with different metal-metal bond lengths from the viewpoint of the open-shell character dependences of each d orbital contribution (dσ, dπ, dδ) to γ and of the chain-length dependence of γ. It turns out that the chain length dependences of the open-shell characters of dπ and dδ orbitals at any metal-metal bond length are negligible, while the dσ open-shell character decreases as a function of chain length. The systems display bell-shaped behaviors of γ as a function of the metal-metal bond length, in which the γ values attain maxima for intermediate dσ open-shell character. The maximum γ value (γmax) exhibits remarkable enhancement as a function of chain length. It is also found that the bond length alternation (BLA) significantly affects the γ values and their chain-length dependences. The present results provide the guiding principles for designing transition-metal complexes with open-shell singlet 1D metallic chains exhibiting large third-order optical nonlinearity.

Super-reduced polyoxometalates: excellent molecular cluster battery components and semipermeable molecular capacitors.

Theoretical investigations are presented on the molecular and electronic structure changes that occur as α-Keggin-type polyoxometalate (POM(3-)) clusters [PM12O40](3-) (M = Mo, W) are converted toward their super-reduced POM(27-) state during the discharging process in lithium-based molecular cluster batteries. Density functional theory was employed in geometry optimization, and first-principles molecular dynamics simulations were used to explore local minima on the potential energy surface of neutral POM clusters adorned with randomly placed Li atoms as electron donors around the cluster surface. On the basis of structural, electron density, and molecular orbital studies, we present evidence that the super-reduction is accompanied by metal-metal bond formation, beginning from the 12th to 14th excess electron transferred to the cluster. Afterward, the number of metal-metal bonds increases nearly linearly with the number of additionally transferred excess electrons. In α-Keggin-type POMs, metal triangles are a prominently emerging structural feature. The origin of the metal triangle formation during super-reduction stems from the formation of characteristic three-center two-electron bonds in triangular metal atom sites, created under preservation of the POM skeleton via "squeezing out" of oxygen atoms bridging two metal atoms when the underlying metal atoms form covalent bonds. The driving force for this unusual geometrical and electronic structure change is a local Jahn-Teller distortion at individual transition-metal octahedral sites, where the triply degenerate t2 d orbitals become partially filled during reduction and gain energy by distortion of the octahedron in such a way that metal-metal bonds are formed. The bonding orbitals show strong contributions from mixing with metal-oxygen antibonding orbitals, thereby "shuffling away" excess electrons from the cluster center to the outside of the cage. The high density of negatively charged yet largely separated oxygen atoms on the surface of the super-reduced POM(27-) polyanion allows the huge Coulombic repulsion due to the presence of the excess electrons to be counterbalanced by the presence of Li countercations, which partially penetrate into the outer oxygen shell. This "semiporous molecular capacitor" structure is likely the reason for the effective electron uptake in POMs.

Terphenyl complexes of molybdenum and tungsten with quadruple metal-metal bonds and bridging carboxylate ligands.

Mono- and bis-terphenyl complexes of molybdenum and tungsten with general composition M2(Ar')(O2CR)3 and M2(Ar')2(O2CR)2, respectively (Ar' = terphenyl ligand), that contain carboxylate groups bridging the quadruply bonded metal atoms, have been prepared and structurally characterized. The new compounds stem from the reactions of the dimetal tetracarboxylates, M2(O2CR)4 (M = Mo, R = H, Me, CF3; M = W, R = CF3) with the lithium salts of the appropriate terphenyl groups (Ar' = Ar(Xyl2), Ar(Mes2), Ar(Dipp2), and Ar(Trip2)). Substitution of one bidentate carboxylate by a monodentate terphenyl forms a M-C σ bond and creates a coordination unsaturation at the other metal atom. Hence in M2(Ar')2(O2CR)2 complexes the two metal atoms have formally a low coordination number and an also low electron count. However, the unsaturation seems to be compensated by a weak M-C(arene) bonding interaction that implicates one of the aryl substituents of the terphenyl central aryl ring, as revealed by X-ray studies performed with some of these complexes and by theoretical calculations.

Analyzing ammonia bridges--and more about bonding in boron-rich solids.

Three types of boron-rich compounds in unusual bonding situations are described: First, salts that contain closo-hydroborate anions and exhibit hydrogen and dihydrogen bonds and a strong ammonia network; second, boron-rich metal borides with an unexpected metal-metal bond stabilized by Peierls distortion; and third, nanoscale metal borides that bind selectively to certain heptapeptides identified by the phage display technique.

Digallane with redox-active diimine ligand: dualism of electron-transfer reactions.

The reactivity of digallane (dpp-Bian)Ga-Ga(dpp-Bian) (1), which consists of redox-active ligand 1,2-bis[(2,6-diisopropylphenyl)imino]acenaphthene (dpp-Bian), has been studied. The reaction of 1 with I2 proceeds via one-electron oxidation of each of two dpp-Bian ligands to a radical-anionic state and affords complex (dpp-Bian)IGa-GaI(dpp-Bian) (2). Dissolution of complex 2 in pyridine (Py) gives monomeric compound (dpp-Bian)GaI(Py) (3) as a result of a solvent-induced intramolecular electron transfer from the metal-metal bond to the dpp-Bian ligands. Treatment of compound 3 with B(C6F5)3 leads to removal of pyridine and restores compound 2. The reaction of compound 1 with 3,6-di-tert-butyl-ortho-benzoquinone (3,6-Q) proceeds with oxidation of all the redox-active centers in 1 (the Ga-Ga bond and two dpp-Bian dianions) and results in mononuclear catecholate (dpp-Bian)Ga(Cat) (4) (Cat = [3,6-Q](2-)). Treatment of 4 with AgBF4 gives a mixture of [(dpp-Bian)2Ag][BF4] (5) and (dpp-Bian)GaF(Cat) (6), which both consist of neutral dpp-Bian ligands. The reduction of benzylideneacetone (BA) with 1 generates the BA radical-anions, which dimerize, affording (dpp-Bian)Ga-(BA-BA)-Ga(dpp-Bian) (7). In this case the Ga-Ga bond remains unchanged. Within 10 min at 95 °C in solution compound 7 undergoes transformation to paramagnetic complex (dpp-Bian)Ga(BA-BA) (8) and metal-free compound C36H40N2 (9). The latter is a product of intramolecular addition of the C-H bond of one of the iPr groups to the C═N bond in dpp-Bian. Diamagnetic compounds 3, 5, 6, and 9 have been characterized by NMR spectroscopy, and paramagnetic complexes 2, 4, 7, and 8 by ESR spectroscopy. Molecular structures of 2-7 and 9 have been established by single-crystal X-ray analysis.

Antibacterial, antifungal, phytotoxic, and genotoxic properties of two complexes of Ag(I) with sulfachloropyridazine (SCP): X-ray diffraction of [Ag(SCP)]n.

We report the synthesis, characterization, antibacterial and antifungal activities, phytotoxicity, and genotoxicity of two new complexes of silver(I) with sulfachloropyridazine (SCP), one of which is heteroleptic with SCP and SCN(-) ligands (Ag-SCP-SCN), the other of which is homoleptic (Ag-SCP); furthermore, the crystal structure of the homoleptic complex is disclosed. The heterocyclic N atom nearest to the Cl atom and the N(sulfonamide) atom could be coordination sites for the silver ion in the Ag-SCP-SCN complex. The Ag-SCP complex is a polymeric compound with metal-metal bonds, and the heterocyclic and sulfonamide N atoms are points of coordination for Ag(I) . Both complexes showed activity against all the tested bacteria, and in the cases of Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, the action was better than that of SCP. In all cases, both silver-SCP complexes showed better antifungal activity than SCP, which was inactive against the tested fungi. Notably, the activity against P. aeruginosa, a nosocomial multidrug-resistant pathogen, was better than that of the reference antibiotic cefotaxim. Both silver-sulfa complexes displayed moderate activity against the tested yeast, especially for C. neoformans, which is an important fact considering the incidence of cryptococcosis, mainly in immune-deficient patients. No chromosomal aberrations were observed with the Allium cepa test, which is auspicious for further study of these complexes as potential drugs.

Two types of heterometallic one-dimensional alignment composed of acetamidate-bridged dirhodium and pivalamidate-bridged diplatinum complexes.

Two types of heterometallic one-dimensional chains, [{Rh2(acam)4}{Pt2(piam)2(NH3)4}2]n(CF3SO3)4n·2nMeOH (2, where acam = acetamidate, piam = pivalamidate) and [{Rh2(acam)4}{Pt2(piam)2(NH3)4}]n(CF3CO2)2n·2nEtOH (3), have been synthesized and characterized by single-crystal X-ray analyses. The chain structures in 2 and 3 are composed of two kinds of dinuclear complexes, [Rh2(acam)4] (i.e., [Rh2]) and [Pt2(piam)2(NH3)4] (i.e., [Pt2]), where Rh and Pt atoms are axially linked by metal-metal bonds. In 2 and 3, each complex is one-dimensionally aligned as -{[Rh2]-[Pt2]-[Pt2]}n- or -{[Rh2]-[Pt2]}n-, respectively, in which different alignments are caused by different isomers of [Pt2] that are HH (head-head) and HT (head-tail) orientation of piam ligands and their hydrogen bonding modes. Considering the crystal structures and X-ray photoelectron spectra (XPS) measurements in 2 and 3, the oxidation states of the metal atoms are -{[Rh2(II,II)]-[Pt2(II,II)]-[Pt2(II,II)]}n- and -{[Rh2(II,II)]-[Pt2(II,II)]}n-, which are unchanged from those in the starting compounds. The diffuse reflectance spectra show that LUMOs are M-M σ-type orbitals. The gap between filled and vacant σ-type orbitals in 3 is narrower than that in 2, and is attributed to the relative higher destabilized filled σ-type orbitals caused by lower numbers of linking platinum atoms.

Characterizations of Novel Binuclear Transition Metal Polynitrogen Compounds: M2(N5)4 (M=Co, Rh and Ir)

Theoretical studies on a series of binuclear transition metal pentazolides M2(N5)4(M=Co, Rh and Ir) predict Paddlewheel-type structures with very short metal-metal distances suggesting high-order metal-metal multiple bonds. Natural Bonding Orbital (NBO) analysis have indicated that the bonding between the metal atom and the five-membered ring is predominantly ionic for each M2(N5)4species, and a high-order metal-metal multiple bonding exists between the two metal atoms, in addition, the presence of the delocalized π orbital plays an important role in the stabilization of this metal-polynitrogen species. Nucleus independent chemical shift (NICS) values confirm that the planar N5exhibits aromaticity in these M2(N5)4species. The values of NICS(0.0), NICS(0.5) and NICS(1.0) for Co2(N5)4are larger than those of the other two M2(N5)4species (M=Rh and Ir), with the order of Co2(N5)4>Rh2(N5)4>Ir2(N5)4. The dissociation energies into Mononuclear Fragments for M2(N5)4(M=Co, Rh and Ir) are predicted to be 82.9 (85.7), 139.9 (113.2), and 155.1 (149.7) kcal/mol, respectively. However, the dissociation energies for the loss of one pentazolato group from the M2(N5)4analysis have indicated that the Co2(N5)4is relatively higher at ~40 kcal/mol. Thermochemistry suggests Co2(N5)4to be a viable species.

Synthesis and crystal structure of the binuclear complex Cs3[Mo 2 V O2(μ-S)2Cl4(H2O)2]Cl

The destruction of hydroxy and aqua bridges of the cyclic pentamer K2I2[Mo10O10(μ-S)10(OH)10(H2O)5] · 20H2O (I) in HCl in the presence of CsCl gave a new binuclear oxothiomolybdenic complex Cs3[Mo2O2(μ-S)2Cl4(H2O)2]Cl (II), which was isolated and characterized by X-ray crystallography. The dimeric fragment in complex II consists of two distorted octahedral Mo(V) centers, which have non-equivalent environment and are connected by two sulfide bridges. The Mo-Mo distance (2.8411(6) A) in II corresponds to a metal-metal bond.

ChemInform Abstract: A Journey of Metal‐Metal Bonding Beyond Cotton′s Quadruple Bonds

AbstractReview: 79 refs.

ChemInform Abstract: Paramagnetism in Metal‐Metal Bonded Paddlewheel Complexes

AbstractReview: 326 refs.

Effects of Adsorbate Coverage and Bond‐Length Disorder on the d‐Band Center of Carbon‐Supported Pt Catalysts

Determination of the factors that affect the d-band center of catalysts is required to explain their catalytic properties. Resonant inelastic X-ray scattering (RIXS) enables direct imaging of electronic transitions in the d-band of Pt catalysts in real time and in realistic environmental conditions. Through a combination of in situ, temperature-resolved RIXS measurements and theoretical simulations we isolated and quantified the effects of bond-length disorder and adsorbate coverage (CO and H2) on the d-band center of 1.25 nm size Pt catalysts supported on carbon. We found that the decrease in adsorbate coverage at elevated temperatures is responsible for the d band shifts towards higher energies relative to the Fermi level, whereas the effect of the increase in bond-length disorder on the d-band center is negligible. Although these results were obtained for a specific case of non-interacting support and weak temperature dependence of the metal-metal bond length in a model catalyst, this work can be extended to a broad range of real catalysts.

Synthesis and Structure of Six-Coordinate Iron Borohydride Complexes Supported by PNP Ligands

The preparation of a number of iron complexes supported by ligands of the type HN{CH2CH2(PR2)}2 [R = isopropyl (((i)Pr)PNP) or cyclohexyl ((Cy)PNP)] is reported. This is the first time this important bifunctional ligand has been coordinated to iron. The iron(II) complexes (((i)Pr)PNP)FeCl2(CO) (1a) and ((Cy)PNP)FeCl2(CO) (1b) were synthesized through the reaction of the appropriate free ligand and FeCl2 in the presence of CO. The iron(0) complex (((i)Pr)PNP)Fe(CO)2 (2a) was prepared through the reaction of Fe(CO)5 with ((i)Pr)PNP, while irradiating with UV light. Compound 2a is unstable in CH2Cl2 and is oxidized to 1a via the intermediate iron(II) complex [(((i)Pr)PNP)FeCl(CO)2]Cl (3a). The reaction of 2a with HCl generated the related complex [(((i)Pr)PNP)FeH(CO)2]Cl (4a), while the neutral iron hydrides (((i)Pr)PNP)FeHCl(CO) (5a) and ((Cy)PNP)FeHCl(CO) (5b) were synthesized through the reaction of 1a or 1b with 1 equiv of (n)Bu4NBH4. The related reaction between 1a and excess NaBH4 generated the unusual η(1)-HBH3 complex (((i)Pr)PNP)FeH(η(1)-HBH3)(CO) (6a). This complex features a bifurcated intramolecular dihydrogen bond between two of the hydrogen atoms associated with the η(1)-HBH3 ligand and the N-H proton of the pincer ligand, as well as intermolecular dihydrogen bonding. The protonation of 6a with 2,6-lutidinium tetraphenylborate resulted in the formation of the dimeric complex [{(((i)Pr)PNP)FeH(CO)}2(μ2,η(1):η(1)-H2BH2)][BPh4] (7a), which features a rare example of a μ2,η(1):η(1)-H2BH2 ligand. Unlike all previous examples of complexes with a μ2,η(1):η(1)-H2BH2 ligand, there is no metal-metal bond and additional bridging ligand supporting the borohydride ligand in 7a; however, it is proposed that two dihydrogen-bonding interactions stabilize the complex. Complexes 1a, 2a, 3a, 4a, 5a, 6a, and 7a were characterized by X-ray crystallography.

Superheavy Element Flerovium (Element 114) Is a Volatile Metal

The electron shell structure of superheavy elements, i.e., elements with atomic number Z ≥ 104, is influenced by strong relativistic effects caused by the high Z. Early atomic calculations on element 112 (copernicium, Cn) and element 114 (flerovium, Fl) having closed and quasi-closed electron shell configurations of 6d(10)7s(2) and 6d(10)7s(2)7p1/2(2), respectively, predicted them to be noble-gas-like due to very strong relativistic effects on the 7s and 7p1/2 valence orbitals. Recent fully relativistic calculations studying Cn and Fl in different environments suggest them to be less reactive compared to their lighter homologues in the groups, but still exhibiting a metallic character. Experimental gas-solid chromatography studies on Cn have, indeed, revealed a metal-metal bond formation with Au. In contrast to this, for Fl, the formation of a weak bond upon physisorption on a Au surface was inferred from first experiments. Here, we report on a gas-solid chromatography study of the adsorption of Fl on a Au surface. Fl was produced in the nuclear fusion reaction (244)Pu((48)Ca, 3-4n)(288,289)Fl and was isolated in-flight from the primary (48)Ca beam in a physical recoil separator. The adsorption behavior of Fl, its nuclear α-decay product Cn, their lighter homologues in groups 14 and 12, i.e., Pb and Hg, and the noble gas Rn were studied simultaneously by isothermal gas chromatography and thermochromatography. Two Fl atoms were detected. They adsorbed on a Au surface at room temperature in the first, isothermal part, but not as readily as Pb and Hg. The observed adsorption behavior of Fl points to a higher inertness compared to its nearest homologue in the group, Pb. However, the measured lower limit for the adsorption enthalpy of Fl on a Au surface points to the formation of a metal-metal bond of Fl with Au. Fl is the least reactive element in the group, but still a metal.

Metal–metal multiple bonding in C3-symmetric bimetallic complexes of the first row transition metals

Metal-metal multiple bonds have been an intense area of focus in inorganic chemistry for many decades as a result of their fundamentally interesting bonding properties, as well as their potential applications in multielectron transfer and small molecule activation processes. Much of what is known in this field revolves around 2nd and 3rd row transition metals, with fundamental knowledge lacking in the area of bonds between elements of the first transition series. The smaller size and tendency of first row ions to adopt high-spin electron configurations weaken metal-metal interactions and serve to complicate the interpretation of the electronic structure and bonding in bimetallic species containing first row transition metals. Furthermore, traditional tetragonal "paddlewheel" complexes dominate the metal-metal multiple bond literature, and only recently have researchers begun to take advantage of the weaker ligand field in three-fold symmetric bimetallic complexes to encourage more favourable metal-metal bonding interactions. In the past 5 years, several research groups have exploited three-fold symmetric frameworks to investigate new trends in metal-metal bonding involving the first row transition metals. This feature article serves to highlight recent achievements in this area and to use C3-symmetric systems as a model to better understand the fundamental aspects of multiple bonds featuring first row transition metals.