Mesophilic Phase Research Articles

Treated swine water as amendment for coffee ground composting system

The rise in demand for coffee and pork has led to an increase in spent coffee grounds (SCG) and swine wastewater (SW) by-products. Commercial fertilizers, which harm the environment, need eco-friendly alternatives like compost. However, little research has focused on combining SCG and SW for composting. This study aims to characterize both SCG and SW and determine the optimal ratio for composting them, as well as their effectiveness when mixed with soil. Additionally, it examines the impact of using SW as a nutrient additive in SCG for organic fertilizer. SCG and SW were collected from local sources and characterized. Using the Berkeley Method, composting was conducted in a 1-meter-high and 0.6- meter-diameter cylindrical pile with a PVC net fence. After the mesophilic phase, the compost was mixed with organic soil and used to grow Bok Choy (Brassica rapa Chinensis) to assess its effects. Results showed that the CS 2 mixture (SCG, SW, and vegetable waste) provided optimal NPK nutrient concentrations and improved soil infiltration and porosity. However, further research is needed to confirm its impact on plant growth. In summary, combining SCG and SW offers a promising solution for reducing waste and commercial fertilizer use, supporting sustainable development goals.

Inorganic and organic additives differently regulate compost microbiomes in response to heavy metals immobilization

Various composting additives, both organic and inorganic, have been used to effectively reduce the bioavailability of heavy metals (HMs) in compost. However, a comprehensive assessment of their comparative contributions and the mechanisms involved is still lacking. In this study, we selected shell powder and biochar as representative amendments to assess their efficacy in immobilizing various HMs. Our results demonstrated that the addition of shell powder and biochar markedly enhanced the synthesis of humic acids (HA), reduced the bioavailability of HMs, and indirectly enhanced microbial carbon metabolism and growth pathways. This enhancement subsequently enriched the abundance of key HA synthesis contributors, including Enterobacter, Thermobispora, Pseudomonas, and Sphingobacterium, creating a positive feedback loop. Additionally, adding biochar altered the abundance of Pseudomonas, Chelatococcus, and Pseudoxanthomonas during the mesophilic phase, thereby reducing the expression of HMs resistance genes (HMRGs). In contrast, shell powder supplementation modulated the response to HMRGs reduction by regulating the abundance of Sphingobacterium, Pseudomonas, and Thermobispora during the thermophilic phase. Ultimately, regional cultivation trials confirmed the potential of these innovative organic fertilizers to significantly reduce the spread of HMs to plants. Collectively, these findings highlighted the similarities and differences between organic and inorganic additives to modulate microbial community responses during HMs immobilization, providing a theoretical framework for diminishing the risks associated with HMs dissemination and improving the quality of organic fertilizers.

Effect of Forced Aeration and Turning Method on Manurial Value of Cattle, Goat and Poultry Manure Compost

Composting is the transformation of organic material through decomposition in to a biologically humus rich substance suitable for growing plants. The good management of those wastes would be an effective means of organic matter restoration through carbon restitution to the depleted soils through organic amendments. A properly managed composting process can destroy weed seeds, plant pathogens and human pathogens. The main goal of composting is carbon sequestration and enhances soil quality. Compost analysis assures buyers of bulk compost in addition to receiving good value for their money and safe organic fertilizer. Composting has four phases viz., mesophilic (21-45℃, thermophilic (45-68℃), mesophilic-II (<45℃) and maturation phase (Papale et al., 2021). The mesophilic phase also called hot phase, during which heterogeneous group of microorganisms were metabolically active and degrade the soluble compounds like sugars. The second phase is thermophilic phase/curing phase. Mesophilic organism was replaced by thermophilic organism and complex organic matter are degraded at this stage. High temperature in compost destroys the pathogenic organisms and contaminants. Composting is one of the methods used and among this forced aeration and turning method helps to improve the manurial value of compost. The present study is conducted to evaluate the effect of forced aeration and turning method in manurial value of cattle, goat and poultry manure compost.

Thermophilic-mesophilic temperature phase anaerobic co-digestion compared with single phase co-digestion of sewage sludge and food waste

Anaerobic co-digestion is an effective method for addressing the issue of a single substrate not being able to achieve optimal conditions for anaerobic digestion. By adjusting the mixture ratio of sewage sludge and food waste to achieve the optimal carbon to nitrogen ratio, the effectiveness of thermophilic–mesophilic temperature phase anaerobic co-digestion (TPAcD) was evaluated in comparison to single phase mesophilic anaerobic co-digestion (MAcD) and thermophilic anaerobic co-digestion (TAcD). The results indicated that TPAcD increased methane yield by 50.3% and 32.7% compared to MAcD and TAcD, respectively. The variation in VFA, pH, and ammonia nitrogen levels demonstrated that TPAcD combines the advantages of both MAcD and TAcD, with a higher hydrolysis rate in the early stage under thermophilic conditions (55 °C) and a suitable environment in the later stage under mesophilic conditions (35 °C). The kinetic parameters of anaerobic co-digestions also demonstrated that TPAcD performs better. Therefore, further research on TPAcD of sewage sludge and food waste is warranted due to its significant improvements in methane production rate, total methane yield, and system stability. Additionally, TPAcD contributes to reducing carbon emissions and supports the realization of “carbon neutrality”.

Insight into N2O emission and denitrifier communities under different aeration intensities in composting of cattle manure from perspective of multi-factor interaction analysis

Nitrous oxide (N2O) emission from composting is a significant contributor to greenhouse effect and ozone depletion, which poses a threat to environment. To address the challenge of mitigating N2O emission during composting, this study investigated the response of N2O emission and denitrifier communities (detected by metagenome sequencing) to aeration intensities of 6 L/min (C6), 12 L/min (C12), and 18 L/min (C18) in cattle manure composting using multi-factor interaction analysis. Results showed that N2O emission occurred mainly at mesophilic phase. Cumulative N2O emission (QN2O, 9.79 mg·kg−1 DW) and total nitrogen loss (TN loss, 16.40 %) in C12 composting treatment were significantly lower than those in the other two treatments. The lower activity of denitrifying enzymes and the more complex and balanced network of denitrifiers and environmental factors might be responsible for the lower N2O emission. Denitrification was confirmed to be the major pathway for N2O production. Moisture content (MC) and Luteimonas were the key factors affecting N2O emission, and nosZ-carrying denitrifier played a significant role in reducing N2O emission. Although relative abundance of nirS was lower than that of nirK significantly (P < 0.05), nirS was the key gene influencing N2O emission. Community composition of denitrifier varied significantly with different aeration treatments (R2 = 0.931, P = 0.001), and Achromobacter was unique to C12 at mesophilic phase. Physicochemical factors had higher effect on QN2O, whereas denitrifying genes, enzymes and NOX− had lower effect on QN2O in C12. The complex relationship between N2O emission and the related factors could be explained by multi-factor interaction analysis more comprehensively. This study provided a novel understanding of mechanism of N2O emission regulated by aeration intensity in composting.

Responses of microorganisms to different wavelengths of light radiation during green waste composting

Light radiation can degrade recalcitrant materials like lignocelluloses in litter and serve as a physical condition to accelerate green waste (GW) decomposition, but few studies have considered the microbial effects of light wavelength on GW composting. This study innovatively investigated the effects of different wavelengths of light radiation, including full-spectrum, no blue light, no UV, no UV-A, no UV-B, and dark conditions, on accelerating the GW composting process. Especially, the study explored the dynamic changes in the degradation of lignocelluloses and evaluated the responses of microorganisms throughout the composting process under different light radiation wavelengths. No blue light (where radiation between 400 and 500 nm was blocked by the film) yielded the highest-quality compost within 40 days. In comparison to the dark (control), no blue light exhibited an elevated composting temperature (56.7 °C), an extended thermophilic phase (6 days), and increased degradation rates of lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose by 13 %, 15 %, and 12 %, respectively. This study revealed that during the composting mesophilic phase, bacterial diversity performed best under no blue light, while fungal diversity excelled under full-spectrum. In the thermophilic phase, microbial diversity exhibited optimal performance under full-spectrum. During the cooling phase, bacterial diversity was highest under no blue light, and fungal diversity excelled under no UV-A. During the mesophilic and cooling phases, the bacterial ACE index for no blue light exceeded that of the other light radiation wavelengths, with values of 418 and 494, respectively. Under no blue light, the Shannon index of microorganisms remained within the range of 2.0–4.8, demonstrating superior performance. Meanwhile, the relative abundances of lignin-degrading microorganisms (Flavobacterium, Acaulium, and Acremoniu) under no blue light has increased, demonstrating improved microbial community structures. Therefore, no blue light radiation offered a novel approach to expedite GW composting.

Effect of simplified inoculum agent on performance and microbiome during cow manure-composting at industrial-scale

A simplified inoculum agent, only comprising Bacillus subtilis and Aspergillus niger, was utilized for industrial-scale cow-manure composting to investigate its impact on composting performance and microbiome. Inoculants elevated the average and peak temperatures by up to 7 and 10 °C, respectively, during the thermophilic stage, reduced organic matter content, and raised germination index. Inoculation also extended the period of composting above 50 °C from 12 to 26 days. Sequencing unveiled significant shifts in microbial diversity, composition, and function. Aspergillus thrived during the mesophilic phase, potentially initiating composting, whereas Bacillus, Lysinibacillus, and Clostridium were enriched during the thermophilic stage. Metagenomic sequencing revealed an increased abundance of carbohydrate-active enzymes and glycometabolism-related genes responsible for lignocellulose degradation and heat generation after inoculation. These enriched microbes and functional genes contributed to organic matter degradation and temperature maintenance during thermophilic stage, expediting composting. This suggests the effectiveness of this simplified inoculum in industrial-level cow-manure composting.

Mitigation of ammonia emissions during food waste composting through acetic acid addition: A promising strategy for sustainable waste management

This research investigates using acetic acid to reduce ammonia emissions during composting while also evaluating its impact on microbial activity, compost quality, and nitrogen content. Composting is essential for recycling food waste and achieving renewable resource targets, but ammonia emissions pose environmental and health concerns. Addressing these issues is crucial for advancing composting technology and promoting sustainable waste management practices. The study reveals that adjusting the pH of compost piles to pH5, pH6, and pH7 reduced ammonia odor production by 65%, 40%, and 20%, respectively, compared to the control pile without acetic acid. The dominant bacteria, including Lactobacillus, Bacillus, and Aneurinibacillus species, played a crucial role in nitrification, leading to significant ammonia reduction during thermophilic and mesophilic phases. Additionally, nitrogen assimilation during composting enriches the nutrient content of the mature compost, as evidenced by seed germination indexes more significant than 80% in the treated piles. These findings contribute to optimizing composting processes and promoting sustainable agricultural circular economies.

Enhanced biodegradation of endocrine disruptor bisphenol A by food waste composting without bioaugmentation: Analysis of bacterial communities and their relative abundances

Composting with food waste was assessed for its efficacy in decontaminating Bisphenol A (BPA). In a BPA-treated compost pile, the initial concentration of BPA 847 mg kg-1 fell to 6.3 mg kg-1 (99% reduction) over a 45-day composting period. The biodegradation rate was at its highest when bacterial activity peaked in the mesophilic and thermophilic phases. The average rate of total biodegradation was 18.68 mg kg-1 day-1. Standard methods were used to assess physicochemical parameters of the compost matrix and gas chromatography combined with mass spectrometry (GC/MS) was used to identify BPA intermediates. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) was used to detect BPA degraders and the diverse bacterial communities involved in BPA decomposition. These communities were found consist of 12 phyla and 21 genera during the composting process and were most diversified during the maturation phase. Three dominant phyla, Firmicutes, Pseudomonadota, and Bacteroidetes, along with Lactobacillus, Proteus, Bacillus, and Pseudomonas were found to be the most responsible for BPA degradation. Different bacterial communities were found to be involved in the food waste compost biodegradation of BPA at different stages of the composting process. In conclusion, food waste composting can effectively remove BPA, resulting in a safe product. These findings might be used to expand bioremediation technologies to apply to a wide range of pollutants.

Suppressive performance of food waste composting with polylactic acid: Emphasis on microbial core metabolism pathways and mechanism

The aim of this study was to assess the effect of polylactic acid (PLA) on microbial community composition and core metabolism pathways in food waste (FW) composting. The presence of PLA negatively influenced microbial community richness and decreased respectively the abundance of Bacillus, Halocella and Cellvibrio at mesophilic, thermophilic and mature phases. Analysis of microbial metabolism at the gene level help to understand the mechanism in co-composting with FW and PLA. The expression of core functional genes related to lactide metabolism was stimulated by PLA degradation at thermophilic and mature phases. The sum of absolute abundance of functional genes that involved in first and second carbon oxidation of tricarboxylic acid cycle was decreased due to the existence of PLA. The transformation between 2-Oxoglutarate and Succinyl-CoA were interfered in thermophilic phase, which might result in the lower germination index in PLA group (115%) than that in control (186%).

Bacterial community dynamics and co-occurrence network patterns during different stages of biochar-driven composting

Bacterial communities were dynamically tracked at four stages of biochar-driven sheep manure pile composting, and the co-occurrence networks with keystone taxa were established. The succession of bacterial community obvious varied during the composting process, Proteobacteria predominant in initial stage (39%) then shifted into Firmicutes in thermophilic (41%) and mesophilic (27%) stages, finally the maturation stage dominant by Bacteroidota (26%). Visualizations of bacterial co-occurrence networks demonstrate more cooperative mutualism and complex interactions in the thermophilic and mesophilic phases. Noticeably, the 7.5 and 10% biochar amended composts shown highest connections (736 and 663 total links) and positive cooperation (97.37 and 97.13% positive link) as well as higher closeness centrality and betweenness centrality of keystone taxa. Overall, appropriate biochar addition alters bacterial community succession and strengthens connection between keystone taxa and other bacteria, with 7.5 and 10% biochar amended composts has intense mutualistic symbiosis among bacterial communities.

Characterization of VOCs during diesel oil composting process

By composting kitchen waste, deisel-contaminated soil was treated and volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions were assessed. Composting kitchen waste reduces contamination volume due to gas emissions. An aerobic treatment period of 12 days was conducted for the measurements of VOC emissions from different phases, such as gaseous, solid, and leachate, were conducted throughout the experiment. The results show that VOC concentrations were high during the mesophilic phase and reduced with increasing temperature during the composting period. It has been observed that at least 314 VOCs have been detected during the mesophilic, thermophilic, and cooling phases. Compost odor was mainly caused by NH3, methanethiol, carbon disulfide, dimethyl sulfide, and dimethyl disulfide, and most of these compounds appeared in thermophilic phase. Furthurmore, emissions of VOCs from composting kitchen waste reduces total diesel concentration in the soil to achieve a green and clean environment.

Uncovering Bacterial Diversity during Mesophilic and Thermophilic Phases of Biowaste Composting through Next-Generation Sequencing

The accumulation of biowastes is one of the main concerns of modern society. One of the most environmentally friendly solutions to convert biowaste into a product is composting. Biowastes may contain unknown substances that are persistent in the final compost, thus contributing to soil contamination and salinization. The effectiveness of the composting process depends on the microbial communities involved, which is the number of investigations’ targets. The present work studied the bacterial diversity of mesophilic and thermophilic phases of composting developed in two different sites. The study was conducted through next-generation Illumina HiSeq sequencing and phylogenetic communities, revealing the dynamics and changes in specific mesophilic and thermophilic habitats of composting piles. The results showed a higher number of bacterial species in the mesophilic phase than in the thermophilic one, proved by the Shannon and Chao indices. In addition, the diversity of bacterial species expressed by the operational taxonomic units was much higher at the site of Harmanli than at the Yasno pole. Higher abundance was found of the genera Sphingobacterium, Sphingomonas, Paracoccus, Pseudomonas, and Halomonas in both studied sites. In the compost of Harmanli genera Streptomyces, Truepera, and Flavobacterium were found to be much more abundant compared to the compost of the Yasno pole. Finally, we conclude that the two plots show relatively significant differences in the diversity of bacteria during biowaste composting. Substantial differences were also observed between the mesophilic and thermophilic phases, with the first showing a significantly higher degree of species richness.

Evaluation of bacterial diversity in a swine manure composting system contaminated with veterinary antibiotics (VAs).

Composting has become an alternative for the treatment of organic effluents, due to its low cost, easy handling, and a great capacity for treating swine manure. As it is a biological process, many microorganisms are involved during the composting process and act in the degradation of organic matter and nutrients and also have the ability to degrade contaminants and accelerate the transformations during composting. The objective of this work was to identify microorganisms present in the swine effluent composting system, under the contamination by most used veterinary drugs in Brazil. The composting took place for 150days, there was an addition of 200 L of manure (these 25 L initially contaminated with 17 antibiotics) in 25kg of eucalyptus wood shavings. The microorganisms were measured at times (0 until 150days) and were identified by the V3-V4 regions of the 16S rRNA for Bacteria, by means of next-generation sequencing (NSG). The results show seven different bacterial phyla (Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, Acidobacteria, Actinobacteria, Spirochaetota and Tenericutes) and 70 bacterial genera (more than 1% significance), of which the most significant ones were Pseudomonas, Sphingobacterium, Devosia, Brucella, Flavisolibacter, Sphingomonas and Nitratireductor. The genus Brucella was found during mesophilic and thermophilic phases, and this genus has not yet been reported an in article involving composting process. With the results obtained, the potential for adaptation of the bacterial community was observed, being under the influence of antibiotics for veterinary use.

Biochar enhanced organic matter transformation during pig manure composting: Roles of the cellulase activity and fungal community

Fungal degradation of cellulose is a key step in the conversion of organic matter in composting. This study investigated the effects of adding 10% biochar (including, prepared from corn stalk and rape stalk corresponding to CSB and RSB) on organic matter transformation in composting and determined the role of cellulase and fungal communities in the conversion of organic matter. The results showed that biochar could enhance the conversion of organic matter, especially in RSB treatment. Biochar could increase cellulase activity, and RSB could enhance 33.78% and 30.70% the average activity of cellulase compared with the control and CSB treatments in the mesophilic to thermophilic phase, respectively. The results of high throughput sequencing demonstrated that Basidiomycota dominant in mesophilic phase, and Ascomycota dominant in other phases of composting. The redundancy analysis showed that Alternaria, Thermomycees, Aspergillus, Wallemia, and Melanocarpus might be the key fungi for the degradation of organic matter, and Fusarium, Penicillium, and Scopulariopsis may promote the conversion of organic matter. Network showed that the addition of RSB changed the interactions between fungal communities and organic matter transformation, and RSB treatment enriched members of Ascomycota related to organic matter transformation and cellulase activity. These results indicated that RSB improved organic matter conversion by enhancing the role of cellulase and fungal communities.

Development of Anaerobic Biodigester for the Production of Biogas Used in Semi-Continuous System Bioprocesses: An Efficient Alternative for Co-Digestion of Low Biodegradability Biomass

The objective of this work was to develop an automated anaerobic biodigester capable of operating in a semi-continuous or batch system for biogas production. Low biodegradability biomass has little efficiency in the production of biogas by anaerobic digestion processes and an efficient alternative is the use of bioprocesses in semi-continuous system. Two experiments were carried out in the same proportions but in different processes, and all control and automation parameters were tested and evaluated. For testing, mixtures of organic waste, anaerobic sludge (inoculum) and raw sewage without any treatment from the sewage treatment plant, in mesophilic phase (37 °C), were used during the 60 days of experiment. The semi-continuous system showed the greatest reduction in organic matter, expressed by the removal of 80.7% Total Solids Volatile (TVS) and the greatest volume (68.5 L) and methane percentage (78.5%). Finally, with these and other results found, it is possible to conclude that the biodigester developed for semi-continuous system, with the automation and control system, was satisfactory for the reduction in organic matter and biogas production. In addition, all operating system worked properly and with the use of current, low-cost technologies, the application and development on a larger scale becomes viable in the future.

Unearthing the mechanisms underlying calcium carbonate therapies for eliminating pathogens during composting

The elimination of pathogens during composting is crucial for safe utilization of organic fertilizers and food security. Nevertheless, simple, low-cost and eco-friendly techniques for pathogen elimination are extremely scarce. The current study was aimed to explore mechanisms underlying the effects of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) addition on pathogen elimination during composting. High throughput sequencing and metabolomic analysis were adopted to determine the efficiency of CaCO3 in pathogen elimination. CaCO3 addition significantly decreased the abundance of pathogens along with increased temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, and extracellular enzyme activities of composting. CaCO3 strongly changed fungal community composition and increased fungal Shannon index and Phylogenetic diversity at the mesophilic phase with Shannon index positively related to pathogen abundance. The fungal function of Plant Pathogen significantly decreased at the thermophilic phase under CaCO3 addition. Antipathogenic metabolites were significantly increased under CaCO3 addition, including 8-iso Prostaglandin F2-Ethanolamide from Fatty acids degradation, Xanthium, 5-(3,4-dihydroxybenzylidene) hexahydropyrimidine-2,4,6-trione and Evernic acid from Aromatic amino acids metabolism, which were responsible for the elimination of Fusarium, Erysiphe, Colletotrichum, Pseudocercospora, Pythium, and Verticillium at the thermophilic phase. Our findings demonstrate that CaCO3 addition could efficiently eliminate pathogens during composting, so that benefit agricultural disease control and food security.

Temperature-phased enhanced the single-stage anaerobic co-digestion of sewage sludge, wine vinasse and poultry manure: Perspetives for the circular economy

The effect of hydraulic retention time (HRT) on single-stage (mesophilic and thermophilic range) and temperature-phase anaerobic co-digestion processes (TPAD) of sewage sludge, wine vinasse, poultry manure was studied. The HRTs studied were 20, 15, 13 and 10 days for the single-stage and TPAD process. For the TPAD with an HRT of 20 days, 65 % of total chemical oxygen demand (TCOD) were removed, which was higher than the single-stage process (26 % and 17 % TCOD removal, respectively for the thermophilic and mesophilic phases). Regarding the volatile solids (VS) removal, TPAD process presented a higher efficiency (90 %) when compared with the thermophilic (41 %) and mesophilic (43 %) single-stage digesters. At an HRT of 13 days 155 mLCH4/gVSadded (thermophilic), 260 mLCH4/gVSadded (mesophilic), and 202 mLCH4/gVSadded (TPAD) were obtained. The maximum methane yield was achieved for the TPAD process operated at an HRT of 20 days (320 mLCH4/gVSadded) with the additional benefit of obtaining hydrogen in the first stage (40.41 mLH2/gVSadded). The digestate obtained from the TPAD process were classified as class A biosolids, and could be used for agriculture fertilizer. In conclusion, TPAD waste management process presented better operational performance and methane yield when compared to a single-stage conventional system, direcly contributing for the framework of a circular economy transition of the agri-food industry.

Exploring the influence mechanisms of polystyrene-microplastics on sewage sludge composting

To explore the influence mechanisms of polystyrene-microplastics (PS-MPs) on sewage sludge composting and put forward relevant composting adjustment strategies, a 30-day sewage sludge (SS) composting experiment was conducted by adding 0%, 0.5%, and 1% (w/w) PS-MPs. The addition of PS-MPs reduced compost temperature, microbial biomass carbon (MBC), and the degradation of volatile solids (2.6%–4.8%), and inhibited the activities of key enzymes (β-glucosidase and alkaline phosphatase) but increased urease activity in the thermophilic phase. Moreover, PS-MPs altered the relative abundance of dominant bacteria and changed the relevance of main enzymes and bacterial communities. Moreover, high levels of PS-MPs inhibited the contribution of dominant bacterial to alkaline phosphatase and β-glucosidase. Redundancy analysis revealed that PS-MPs affected the composting process mainly through reduced MBC at the mesophilic phase and temperature at the thermophilic phase. Thus, regulating MBC and temperature in specific phases could help overcome the adverse effects of PS-MPs on composting.

Deciphering the effect of exogenous lignocellulases addition on the composting efficiency and microbial communities

This study aimed to reveal the potential effects of exogenous lignocellulases addition on the composting efficiency and microbial communities. The lignocellulases addition at the mesophilic phase (MEP) greatly expedited the substrate conversion and the rise of temperature at the initial stage, driving the early arrival of thermophilic phase (THP), caused by the positive effects of Sphingobacterium and Brevundimonas. When being added at the THP, the potential functions and interactions of microbial communities were stimulated, especially for Thermobispora and Mycothermus, which prolonged the duration of the THP and expedited the humic acid formation. Simultaneous addition (MEP and THP) significantly altered the microbial community succession and activated the microbes that contributed to the lignocellulases secretion, exhibiting the highest cellobiohydrolase (36.19 ± 3.25 U· g−1 dw) and xylanase (47.51 ± 3.32 U·g−1 dw) activity at the THP. These findings provide new strategies that can be effectively utilized to improve the efficiency and quality of composting.