MERS-CoV Infection Research Articles

Pan-beta-coronavirus subunit vaccine prevents SARS-CoV-2 Omicron, SARS-CoV, and MERS-CoV challenge.

Coronaviruses (CoVs), SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV, and MERS-CoV, the respective causative agents of coronavirus disease 2019, SARS, and MERS, continually threaten human health. The spike (S) protein and its receptor-binding domain (RBD) fragment of these CoVs are critical vaccine targets. Nevertheless, the highly mutated RBD of SARS-CoV-2 variants, especially Omicron, significantly reduces the efficacy of current vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 variants. Here a protein-based pan-beta-CoV subunit vaccine is designed by fusing the potent and conserved RBD of MERS-CoV into an RBD-truncated Omicron S protein. The resulting vaccine maintained effective functionality and antigenicity, induced broadly neutralizing antibodies against all of these highly pathogenic human CoVs, and elicited Omicron S-specific cellular immune responses, protecting immunized mice from SARS-CoV-2 Omicron, SARS-CoV, and MERS-CoV infections. Taken together, this study rationally designed a pan-beta-CoV subunit vaccine with broad-spectrum efficacy, which has the potential for development as an effective universal vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 variants and other CoVs with pandemic potential.

Rise in broadly cross-reactive adaptive immunity against human β-coronaviruses in MERS-recovered patients during the COVID-19 pandemic.

To develop a universal coronavirus (CoV) vaccine, long-term immunity against multiple CoVs, including severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants, Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS)-CoV, and future CoV strains, is crucial. Following the 2015 Korean MERS outbreak, we conducted a long-term follow-up study and found that although neutralizing antibodies and memory T cells against MERS-CoV declined over 5 years, some recovered patients exhibited increased antibody levels during the COVID-19 pandemic. This likely resulted from cross-reactive immunity induced by SARS-CoV-2 vaccines or infections. A significant correlation in antibody responses across various CoVs indicates shared immunogenic epitopes. Two epitopes-the spike protein's stem helix and intracellular domain-were highly immunogenic after MERS-CoV infection and after SARS-CoV-2 vaccination or infection. In addition, memory T cell responses, especially polyfunctional CD4+ T cells, were enhanced during the pandemic, correlating significantly with MERS-CoV spike-specific antibodies and neutralizing activity. Therefore, incorporating these cross-reactive and immunogenic epitopes into pan-CoV vaccine formulations may facilitate effective vaccine development.

The Potential of Natural Products in the Management of COVID-19.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) was identified as the novel coronavirus that caused a life-threatening viral illness (COVID-19) at the end of 2019. Within a short period of time, this virus spread leading to tremendous loss of life and economic damage. Medications to treat this virus are not yet established, and the process of implementing new strategies for medications is time-consuming. Recent clinical studies revealed the abandonment of the most promising candidates, who later became potential leads. Only through comprehensive study for safety and efficacy the medications, which have already received approval, be repurposed for use in different therapeutic purposes. Natural sources are being used arbitrarily as antiviral drugs and immunity boosters because there are no clear therapies on the horizon. It has long been known that most natural compounds have strong antiviral properties including SARS-CoV-2. Natural remedies have been demonstrated to have inhibitory effects on MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV infections. The non-structural proteins of the virus, such as PLPRO, MPRO, and RdRp, as well as structural proteins like the spike (S) protein, have been demonstrated to have a substantial binding affinity and an inhibitory effect by a variety of natural products, according to in silico research. The virus also demonstrates to be a legitimate target for therapeutic development since it makes use of the host cell's transmembrane ACE2 receptor. In this chapter, we highlight on the potential of alkaloids, phenolic and polyphenolic compounds, flavonoids, terpenoids, cardiac glycosides, and natural products from marine sources against the human coronavirus via different mode of actions. Most of the studied metabolites act either by inhibiting virus replication or by blocking the active site of the protein of the virus either in silico or ex vivo. This review serves as a topic for further study and to discover other secondary metabolites for COVID-19 management.

SARS-CoV-2-infected human airway epithelial cell cultures uniquely lack interferon and immediate early gene responses caused by other coronaviruses.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a member of a class of highly pathogenic coronaviruses. The large family of coronaviruses, however, also includes members that cause only mild symptoms, like human coronavirus-229E (HCoV-229E) or OC43 (HCoV-OC43). Unravelling how molecular (and cellular) pathophysiology differs between highly and low pathogenic coronaviruses is important for the development of therapeutic strategies. Here, we analysed the transcriptome of primary human bronchial epithelial cells (PBEC), differentiated at the air-liquid interface (ALI) after infection with SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV, Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS)-CoV and HCoV-229E using bulk RNA sequencing. ALI-PBEC were efficiently infected by all viruses, and SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV and HCoV-229E infection resulted in a largely similar transcriptional response. The response to SARS-CoV-2 infection differed markedly as it uniquely lacked the increase in expression of immediate early genes, including FOS, FOSB and NR4A1 that was observed with all other coronaviruses. This finding was further confirmed in publicly available experimental and clinical datasets. Interfering with NR4A1 signalling in Calu-3 lung epithelial cells resulted in a 100-fold reduction in extracellular RNA copies of SARS-CoV-2 and MERS-CoV, suggesting an involvement in virus replication. Furthermore, a lack in induction of interferon-related gene expression characterised the main difference between the highly pathogenic coronaviruses and low pathogenic viruses HCoV-229E and HCoV-OC43. Our results demonstrate a previously unknown suppression of a host response gene set by SARS-CoV-2 and confirm a difference in interferon-related gene expression between highly pathogenic and low pathogenic coronaviruses.

Symptomatic MERS-CoV infection reduces the risk of future COVID-19 disease; a retrospective cohort study

BackgroundThe general human immune responses similarity against different coronaviruses may reflect some degree of cross-immunity, whereby exposure to one coronavirus may confer partial immunity to another. The aim was to determine whether previous MERS-CoV infection was associated with a lower risk of subsequent COVID-19 disease and its related outcomes.MethodsWe conducted a retrospective cohort study among all patients screened for MERS-CoV at a tertiary care hospital in Saudi Arabia between 2012 and early 2020. Both MERS-CoV positive and negative patients were followed up from early 2020 to September 2021 for developing COVID-19 infection confirmed by RT-PCR testing.ResultsA total of 397 participants followed for an average 15 months during COVID-19 pandemic (4.9 years from MERS-CoV infection). Of the 397 participants, 93 (23.4%) were positive for MERS-CoV at baseline; 61 (65.6%) of the positive cases were symptomatic. Out of 397, 48 (12.1%) participants developed COVID-19 by the end of the follow-up period. Cox regression analysis adjusted for age, gender, and major comorbidity showed a marginally significant lower risk of COVID-19 disease (hazard ratio = 0.533, p = 0.085) and hospital admission (hazard ratio = 0.411, p = 0.061) in patients with positive MERS-CoV. Additionally, the risk of COVID-19 disease was further reduced and became significant in patients with symptomatic MERS-CoV infection (hazard ratio = 0.324, p = 0.034) and hospital admission (hazard ratio = 0.317, p = 0.042).ConclusionsThe current findings may indicate a partial cross-immunity, where patients with symptomatic MERS-CoV have a lower risk of future COVID-19 infection and related hospitalization. The present results may need further examination nationally using immunity markers.

A longitudinal study of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) in dromedary camels

BackgroundMiddle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) was identified in humans in 2012. Since then, 2605 cases and 937 associated deaths have been reported globally. Camels are the natural host for MERS-CoV and camel to human transmission has been documented. The relationship between MERS-CoV shedding and presence of neutralizing antibodies in camels is critical to inform surveillance and control, including future deployment of camel vaccines. However, it remains poorly understood. The longitudinal study conducted in a closed camel herd in Egypt between December 2019 and March 2020 helped to characterize the kinetics of MERS-CoV neutralizing antibodies and its relation with viral shedding.ResultsDuring the 100-day longitudinal study, 27 out of 54 camels (50%) consistently tested negative for presence of antibodies against MERS-CoV, 19 (35.2%) tested positive and 8 (14.8%) had both, positive and negative test results. Fourteen events that could be interpreted as serological indication of probable infection (two seroconversions and twelve instances of positive camels more than doubling their optical density ratio (OD ratio) in consecutive samples) were identified. Observed times between the identified events provided strong evidence (p = 0.002) against the null hypothesis that they occurred with constant rate during the study, as opposed to clustering at certain points in time. A generalized additive model showed that optical density ratio (OD ratio) is positively associated with being an adult and varies across individual camels and days, peaking at around days 20 and 90 of the study. Despite serological indication of probable virus circulation and intense repeated sampling, none of the tested nasal swab samples were positive for MERS-CoV RNA, suggesting that, if the identified serological responses are the result of virus circulation, the virus may be present in nasal tissue of infected camels during a very narrow time window.ConclusionsLongitudinal testing of a closed camel herd with past history of MERS-CoV infection is compatible with the virus continuing to circulate in the herd despite lack of contact with other camels. It is likely that episodes of MERS-CoV infection in camels can take place with minimal presence of the virus in their nasal tissues, which has important implications for future surveillance and control of MERS-CoV in camel herds and prevention of its zoonotic transmission.

The role of DC-SIGN as a trans-receptor in infection by MERS-CoV.

DC-SIGN is a C-type lectin expressed in myeloid cells such as immature dendritic cells and macrophages. Through glycan recognition in viral envelope glycoproteins, DC-SIGN has been shown to act as a receptor for a number of viral agents such as HIV, Ebola virus, SARS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2. Using a system of Vesicular Stomatitis Virus pseudotyped with MERS-CoV spike protein, here, we show that DC-SIGN is partially responsible for MERS-CoV infection of dendritic cells and that DC-SIGN efficiently mediates trans-infection of MERS-CoV from dendritic cells to susceptible cells, indicating a potential role of DC-SIGN in MERS-CoV dissemination and pathogenesis.

College students’ knowledge, attitude, and practices on COVID-19 prevention post e-health education program

This study explored if significant improvements in knowledge, attitude, and practices among college students will be observed post E-health education program on COVID-19 prevention. The study reports a pre-post quantitative research on 178 college students. The participants received nine sessions of e-health education developed using the Communicable Disease Control Health Education Curriculum Analysis Tool (HECAT) through Zoom. The adapted and modified questionnaire was developed from previously published literature regarding viral epidemics related to MERS-CoV disease, infection prevention, and control measures for COVID-19 by World Health Organization and the Communicable Disease Control and Prevention guidelines. The first phase gathers the relevant profile and background of the participants, and the last phase comprises post-evaluation. The data were analyzed using SPSS version 27. The results indicate above-average means for knowledge on COVID-19 prevention in the pretest (17.75±2.27) and the posttest (17.60±2.95). Moreover, the participants were aware of the importance of vaccination, social distancing measures, following health protocols, and the essentiality of compliance with government agencies' guidelines. However, the participants were not practicing some of these health measures, as evidenced by the low means in the pretest (1.75±0.97) and posttest (1.66±1.08). All tests for significant differences of pretest and posttest means of knowledge (p=0.46), attitude (p=0.12), and practices (p=0.41) on COVID-19 prevention were all insignificant. Our study provides evidence that the online health education program improved college students' knowledge and attitude toward COVID-19 prevention. Still, they did not adhere to or practice some of the health measures to prevent its transmission.

Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus—a 10-year (2012-2022) global analysis of human and camel infections, genomic sequences, lineages, and geographical origins

ObjectivesThe World Health Organization priority zoonotic pathogen Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) coronavirus (CoV) has a high case fatality rate in humans and circulates in camels worldwide. MethodsWe performed a global analysis of human and camel MERS-CoV infections, epidemiology, genomic sequences, clades, lineages, and geographical origins for the period January 1, 2012 to August 3, 2022. MERS-CoV Surface gene sequences (4061 bp) were extracted from GenBank, and a phylogenetic maximum likelihood tree was constructed. ResultsAs of August 2022, 2591 human MERS cases from 26 countries were reported to the World Health Organization (Saudi Arabia, 2184 cases, including 813 deaths [case fatality rate: 37.2%]) Although declining in numbers, MERS cases continue to be reported from the Middle East. A total of 728 MERS-CoV genomes were identified (the largest numbers were from Saudi Arabia [222: human = 146, camels = 76] and the United Arab Emirates [176: human = 21, camels = 155]). A total of 501 ‘S’-gene sequences were used for phylogenetic tree construction (camels [n = 264], humans [n = 226], bats [n = 8], other [n=3]). Three MERS-CoV clades were identified: clade B, which is the largest, followed by clade A and clade C. Of the 462 clade B lineages, lineage 5 was predominant (n = 177). ConclusionMERS-CoV remains a threat to global health security. MERS-CoV variants continue circulating in humans and camels. The recombination rates indicate co-infections with different MERS-CoV lineages. Proactive surveillance of MERS-CoV infections and variants of concern in camels and humans worldwide, and development of a MERS vaccine, are essential for epidemic preparedness.

Extensive research into MERS-CoV to ascertain its current status, epidemiological context, and potential in the future.

Extensive research into MERS-CoV to ascertain its current status, epidemiological context, and potential in the future.

Differential MERS-CoV response in different cell types

The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic piqued our interest in coronaviruses and prompted us to study MERS-CoV. While MERS-CoV has a low infection rate, it exhibits the highest mortality rate among the three known lethal coronaviruses. Thus, the potential for MERS-CoV to initiate a catastrophic pandemic remains a real threat. We decided to study MERS-CoV using online databases and analytical tools. We hypothesized that MERS-CoV infection elicits different responses in different types of host cells. We chose three data sets from Gene Omnibus Expression - GSE100504, GSE100509, and GSE86528, which represent MERS-CoV infection on human airway epithelial cells, primary human microvascular endothelial cells, and primary human fibroblasts, respectively. We performed RNA expression analysis on data collected 48 hours post-infection. Results indicated that human airway epithelial cells exhibited the most potent immune system response, suggesting that they are susceptible to pathogen infection, perhaps due to their location and exposure to the outside environment. We saw NRP1 and VEGFA upregulation in microvascular endothelial cells along with differential expression of angiogenesis and neural development processes. Given that NRP1 mediates SARS-CoV-2 entry into host cells, the infection mechanism for MERS-CoV on microvascular endothelial cells may be like that of SARS-CoV-2. In fibroblasts, we observed a positive regulation of the apoptotic process and negative regulation of cell proliferation. Together, our data supports our hypothesis and sheds light on the types of responses host cells elicit from MERS-CoV infection.

Review on the epidemiology and its public health importance on Middle East Respiratory Syndrome corona virus

The Middle Eastern Respiratory Syndrome Mers-Cov is a new zoonotic beta corona virus of the C lineage identified in dromedary camels in East Africa and the Arabian Peninsula that exhibits the dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4) receptor. It was first described in the Saudi Arabian kingdom of Saud in September of 2012, and worldwide in May of 2019. Camels are usually asymptomatic when afflicted. Unlike in camels, clinical signs and symptoms of MERS-CoV infection in humans range from asymptomatic or mild respiratory disease to severe respiratory illness and death. There is no pathognomonic manifestation in people or camels. Molecular and serologic tests are necessary to verify the diagnosis. There is presently no medication or vaccine available to treat or prevent MERS-CoV infection in humans. Strict restriction of camel movement, isolation of ill camels, camel handlers using personal protective equipment, and public awareness creation are all critical approaches for controlling MERS-CoV transmission, particularly among Ethiopian pastoralists who ingest unpasteurized camel milk. As a result, urgent epidemiological investigations are required, particularly in the nations' impoverished camel raising areas, to better understand the transmission patterns and human cases of MERS-CoV, as well as to guarantee that the aforementioned control measures are appropriately executed. As a result, the purpose of this study was to investigate the epidemiology and public health implications of MERS-CoV in Ethiopia's highly exposed pastoralist community, which has intimate contact with camels, and to recommend the illness for further epidemiological monitoring and inquiry.

Reduction of MERS-CoV Transmission among Healthcare Workers and Patients in Saudi Arabian Healthcare Settings: A Scoping Review

Background No review consolidating available evidence of the various interventions for preventing MERS-CoV transmission in healthcare settings has been published to inform practice. The MERS-CoV outbreak in Saudi Arabia led to wide-scale hospitalisations and, among other individuals at risk, healthcare workers (HCW) were one of the most affected groups. This study evaluates the effectiveness of various interventions implemented to prevent MERS-CoV transmission to HCW and MERS-negative patients in Saudi Arabian healthcare settings. Methods This review summarises and evaluates the effectiveness of MERS-CoV infection prevention and control (IPC) measures in Saudi Arabian hospital settings. Instead of using ‘best quality/evidence’ studies, the review has included as many relevant studies as possible. Results Various IPC measures were deemed effective. However, since no analysis of their effectiveness had been undertaken, it was not possible to determine the interventions’ level of effectiveness as applied in hospital settings. The studies appeared to rely on the assumption that the extent of MERS-CoV transmission control observed was a direct reflection of the implemented IPC measures. Conclusions Robust studies, using empirical methods, should be conducted to measure the effectiveness of the various IPC measures developed and implemented to control MERS-CoV transmission

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Dynamics of Human Infection: Molecular Biology, Virology, and Immunology

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) has become a global public health menace because of its immunopathogenesis and faster transmission than prior coronaviruses that infected people. Due to the genetic similarity between SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV infections, knowledge from earlier SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV infections has been used to infer the mechanism behind the host immune response during the infection with SARS-CoV-2 even though this knowledge is incomplete. The hyperactivation of macrophages and monocytes, which results in autophagic cell death and increases interleukin-6 and neutrophil levels, is evidence for this. It has been proposed that SARS-CoV-2 undermines the host’s immune system by blocking interferon induction and signaling, which contributes to a cytokine storm that may result in acute respiratory distress syndrome and multiple organ failure while reducing the host’s adaptive immunological responses. This work gives a broad review of the molecular dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 infection from the viewpoints of molecular biology, virology, and immunology in order to clarify and critically characterize the immunopathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 and how it can alter sickness severity. Thus, this would enlighten us on potential new therapeutic avenues for future studies.

Heterogeneity of treatment effect of interferon-β1b and lopinavir–ritonavir in patients with Middle East respiratory syndrome by cytokine levels

Animal and human data indicate variable effects of interferons in treating coronavirus infections according to inflammatory status and timing of therapy. In this sub-study of the MIRACLE trial (MERS-CoV Infection Treated with a Combination of Lopinavir–Ritonavir and Interferon β-1b), we evaluated the heterogeneity of treatment effect of interferon-β1b and lopinavir–ritonavir versus placebo among hospitalized patients with MERS on 90-day mortality, according to cytokine levels and timing of therapy. We measured plasma levels of 17 cytokines at enrollment and tested the treatment effect on 90-day mortality according to cytokine levels (higher versus lower levels using the upper tertile (67%) as a cutoff point) and time to treatment (≤ 7 days versus > 7 days of symptom onset) using interaction tests. Among 70 included patients, 32 received interferon-β1b and lopinavir–ritonavir and 38 received placebo. Interferon-β1b and lopinavir–ritonavir reduced mortality in patients with lower IL-2, IL-8 and IL-13 plasma concentrations but not in patients with higher levels (p-value for interaction = 0.09, 0.07, and 0.05, respectively) and with early but not late therapy (p = 0.002). There was no statistically significant heterogeneity of treatment effect according to other cytokine levels. Further work is needed to evaluate whether the assessment of inflammatory status can help in identifying patients with MERS who may benefit from interferon-β1b and lopinavir–ritonavir.Trial registration: This is a sub-study of the MIRACLE trial (ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT02845843).

Evaluation of a Rapid Immunochromatographic Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Antigen Detection Assay

Abstract Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) infection in humans has a high mortality of >30%. Dromedaries are the reservoir of MERS-CoV and the main source of human infections. However, MERS-CoV infections in dromedaries are usually subclinical. Rapid diagnosis of MERS-CoV infection in these animals is important in preventing camel-to-human transmission of the virus. The possible cross-reactivity of a previously reported rapid nucleocapsid protein-based antigen detection assay for MERS-CoV was examined with different CoVs, including Tylonycteris bat CoV HKU4, dromedary camel CoV UAE-HKU23, human CoV-229E, human CoV-OC43, severe acute respiratory syndrome CoV-2 and rabbit CoV HKU14, where none of them showed false-positive results. The assay was further validated using quantitative real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction–confirmed MERS-CoV–positive and MERS-CoV–negative dromedary nasal samples collected in Dubai, the United Arab Emirates, which showed that the rapid antigen detection assay has a specificity of 100% and sensitivity of 91.7%.

Differential expression of carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule-5 (CEACAM5) and dipeptidyl peptidase‐4 (DPP4) with detection of Middle East respiratory syndrome-coronavirus in peripheral blood

BackgroundMiddle East respiratory syndrome-coronavirus (MERS-CoV) utilizes CD26 (dipeptidyl peptidase‐4) and CD66e or CEACAM5 (carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule 5) receptors for cell infection. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) play a critical role in mounting adaptive immune response against the virus. This study was performed to assess the expression of CD26 and CD66e on PBMCs and their susceptibility to MERS-CoV infection. MethodsSurface expression of CD26 and CD66e receptors on PBMCs from MERS-CoV patients (n = 20) and healthy controls (n = 20) was assessed by flow cytometry and the soluble forms were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). MERS-CoV UpE and Orf1a genes in PBMCs were detected by using Altona diagnostics reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) kit. ResultsMean fluorescent intensity (MFI) of CD66e was significantly higher on CD4 + lymphocytes (462.4 ± 64.35 vs 325.1 ± 19.69; p < 0.05) and CD8 + lymphocytes (533.8 ± 55.32 vs 392.4 ± 37.73; p < 0.04) from patients with MERS-CoV infection compared to the normal controls. No difference in MFI for CD66e was observed on monocytes (381.8 ± 40.34 vs 266.8 ± 20.6; p = 0.3) between the patients and controls. Soluble form of CD66e among MERS-CoV patients was also higher than the normal controls (mean= 338.7 ± 58.75 vs 160.7 ± 29.49 ng/mL; p < 0.01). Surface expression of CD26 on PBMCs and its soluble form were no different between the groups. MERS-CoV was detected by RT-PCR in 16/20 (80%) patients from whole blood, among them 8 patients were tested in PBMCs, 4/8 (50%) patients were positive. ConclusionIncreased expression levels of CD66e (CEACAM5) may contribute to increased susceptibility of PBMCs to MERS-CoV infection and disease progression.

Evaluation of risk factors associated with SARS-CoV-2 transmission

Objective Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has caused high morbidity and mortality worldwide. Since there is not enough evidence of risk factors of SARS-CoV-2 transmission, this study aimed to evaluate them. Methods This survey-based study was conducted across 66 countries from May to November 2020 among suspected and confirmed individuals with COVID-19. The stepwise AIC method was utilized to determine the optimal multivariable logistic regression to explore predictive factors of SARS-CoV-2 transmission. Results Among 2372 respondents who participated in the study, there were 1172 valid responses. The profession of non-healthcare-worker (OR: 1.77, 95%CI: 1.04–3.00, p = .032), history of SARS-CoV or MERS-CoV infection (OR: 4.78, 95%CI: 2.34–9.63, p < .001), higher frequency of contact with colleagues (OR: 1.17, 95%CI: 1.01–1.37, p = .041), and habit of hugging when greeting (OR: 1.25, 95%CI: 1.00–1.56, p = .049) were associated with an increased risk of contracting COVID-19. Current smokers had a lower likelihood of having COVID-19 compared to former smokers (OR: 5.41, 95%CI: 1.93–17.49, p = .002) or non-smokers (OR: 3.69, 95%CI: 1.48–11.11, p = .01). Conclusions Our study suggests several risk factors for SARS-CoV-2 transmission including the profession of non-healthcare workers, history of other coronavirus infections, frequent close contact with colleagues, the habit of hugging when greeting, and smoking status.

Boosting the anti MERS-CoV activity and oral bioavailability of resveratrol via PEG-stabilized emulsomal nano-carrier: Factorial design, in-vitro and in-vivo assessments

Resveratrol (RSV) is a phytoceutical polyphenolic compound exhibiting a well evidenced wide range of therapeutic activities. Unfortunately, its diminished aqueous solubility and extensive metabolism in gastro intestinal tract (GIT) and liver prohibit its biological activity and systemic availability. Herein the conducted study PEG stabilized emulsomes (PEMLs) were customized to enclose RSV aiming to boost its biological availability and antiviral activity. PEGylating the vesicles not only grant the promoted steric stability of the system but also being beneficial in exaggerating the intestinal permeability and extending the period of circulation of the drug, hence its targeted clinical use. The Investigation of the influence of predetermined variables on the physical characterization of formulae (entrapment efficiency EE%, particle size PS and zeta potential ZP) was implemented utilizing Design Expert® software. (F4) with desirability value (0.772), picked to be the optimal formula, which is fabricated utilizing 35 mg compritol as the lipidic core and 60 mg 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-[amino(polyethylene glycol)-2000] (DSPE-Mpeg-2000). The dominance of the F4 relative to RSV dispersion was affirmed by the data acquired from ex-vivo and pharmacokinetic studies. In addition, F4 exhibited significant lower EC50 value (0.0127 µg/mL) relative to that of RSV dispersion(0.338 µg/mL) by around 26 times denoting the capability of the formulation to boost the antiviral activity. To a great extent, F4 was able to significantly suppress the inflammatory response and oxidative stress resulted from MERS-CoV infection on comparison with RSV dispersion. Finally, the potentiality of PEMLs as nano-panel with boosted both antiviral and oral bioavailability for RSV could be deduced based on the outcomes mentioned herein.

Long-Term Health Consequences of SARS-CoV-2: Assumptions Based on SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV Infections.

Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19) is one of the worst pandemics in the history of the world. It is the third coronavirus disease that has afflicted humans in a short span of time. The world appears to be recovering from the grasp of this deadly pandemic; still, its post-disease health effects are not clearly understood. It is evident that the vast majority of COVID-19 patients usually recovered over time; however, disease manifestation is reported to still exist in some patients even after complete recovery. The disease is known to have left irreversible damage(s) among some patients and these damages are expected to cause mild or severe degrees of health effects. Apart from the apparent damage to the lungs caused by SARS-CoV-1, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2 infection, COVID-19-surviving patients display a wide spectrum of dysfunctions in different organ systems that is similar to what occurs with SARS-CoV-1 and MERS diseases. The major long COVID-19 manifestations include the following aspects: (1) central nervous system, (2) cardiovascular, (3) pulmonary, (4) gastrointestinal, (5) hematologic, (6) renal and (7) psycho-social systems. COVID-19 has a disease display manifestation in these organs and its related systems amongst a large number of recovered cases. Our study highlights the expected bodily consequences of the pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection based on the understanding of the long-term effects of SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV.