Merchant Seafarers Research Articles

Semi-militarized in war and lack of recognition in peace: Norwegian and other Allied seafarers in the Second World War

Ship transport was a decisive factor for the outcome of the Second World War and resulted in many casualties among merchant seafarers. A lesser-known consequence of the war was the challenges to the seafarers’ position as civilians, not least through the militarization of merchant ships. This article investigates how this took place and its consequences during and after the war. Both the seafarers’ questionable legal status in relation to the rules of war and the character of their situation are analysed. This is done by studying how the wartime seafarers were treated by their governments, the enemies’ perspective and the seafarers’ own identity, using empirical examples from the Norwegian and other Allied nations’ merchant fleets. An unclear and changing position between being a military and a civilian person, probably contributed to the lack of recognition of the seafarers’ long and dangerous wartime effort in the post-war era.

Screening for anxiety, depression and poor psychological well-being in Spanish seafarers: An empirical study of the cut-off points on three measures of psychological functioning

The present study examines three variables that are associated with psychological issues in merchant seafarers: anxiety, depression and well-being. Furthermore, cut-off points have been established for three psychological scales: the Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD-7) questionnaire, the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) and the World Health Organization's Well-Being Index (WHO-5). Two cross-sectional surveys were employed in this study, with a total sample size of 170 Spanish seafarers working on international merchant vessels. The participants were recruited at a branch of the Social Marine Institute situated in Gijón, northern Spain. The PHQ demonstrated the greatest discriminatory ability at each of the cut-off points, followed by the GAD and the WHO. The analysis revealed that while the PHQ exhibited the highest sensitivity, the GAD demonstrated the highest specificity, making it the most balanced questionnaire overall. Holiday duration was the only variable significantly related to any of the psychological scales, specifically the WHO. The findings of this study provide a foundation for further research in maritime mental health, with a particular focus on the prevention of maritime accidents.

Effects of Wars on Merchant Seafarers: Study on Experiences and Concerns in the Russia-Ukraine War

Merchant seafarers, the key workers of the global economy as stated by the International Maritime Organization, are becoming targets of armed attacks, even if they have nothing to do with weapons. Several ships have been assaulted, and their crew members have suffered in the ongoing Russian-Ukrainian war in the Black Sea. There is a developing area of interest in the mental well-being of seafarers; however, current studies mostly focus on the effects of piracy. This research aims to offer a novel model that may identify the effects of war on seafarers, and the importance of each contributing factor that may potentially induce a concern in merchant seafarers. According to the results, financial pressures dominated over other sources of concern, which include life safety risks. The findings of this study may offer valuable data to policymakers for developing strategies with respect to the protection and well-being of seafarers.

Filipino seafarers’ experiences and perceptions of psychosocial interventions during the COVID-19 pandemic

This paper examines the mental health and psychosocial support (MHPSS) interventions provided to Filipino international merchant seafarers during the COVID-19 pandemic. Given the significant labor participation in seafaring of Filipinos, examining the MHPSS provided to them during a crisis is necessary because these services remain unexplored. Using an online survey, this paper raises two questions: (1) what MHPSS was provided to Filipino seafarers during the pandemic and (2) how did the seafarers perceive the importance of MHPSS interventions? Twenty-two MHPSS interventions are presented and analyzed, and policy recommendations for various Philippine-based stakeholders are offered.

William Falconer's “Sons of Neptune”: The Merchant Service, the Royal Navy, and The Shipwreck

One month after the publication of his poem on merchant seafaring, The Shipwreck (1762), William Falconer left merchant sailing to become a junior officer in the Royal Navy. In the midcentury, many commentators believed that the Royal Navy's sailors were superior to merchant sailors. Falconer's response can be traced by contrasting his first edition of The Shipwreck with the revisions he made to the poem after joining the Royal Navy. The revisions address directly the notion that merchant sailors value only financial reward, but then focus on the notion that sailors who fight for king and country are braver than those who move cargo. In the revised narrative of the sailors’ battle with the elements, Falconer emphasizes the physical limits to their bravery, and thus suggests that merchant sailors are like Royal Navy sailors because all sailors are equally vulnerable to storms at sea.

Medical training of seafarers: International Maritime Health Foundation (IMHF) Expert Panel Consensus Statement.

Medical emergencies and on-going medical conditions on board may seriously impair seafarers' health and safety, and also negatively impact on future work prospects for seafarers. When a seafarer gets ill or injured on a ship, medical treatment often relies on the competences on his colleagues on board. The aim of this project was to establish a consensus-based minimum standard for medical education for seafarers, in order to ensure competency for adequate management of ill-health on board. International Maritime Health Foundation (IMHF) conducted a workshop on medical training of seafarers. A research-based approach to gain consensus on core learning outcomes/competences developed by the Tuning Project, has been used. This method was used by Tuning (Medicine) to gain consensus on core learning outcomes for primary medical degrees (Master of Medicine) across Europe. The result of the project is a set of learning outcomes/competences in medical training for merchant seafarers. The project resulted in a set of learning outcomes/competences on medical training of the seafarers that will be submitted to the relevant bodies of International Maritime Organization (IMO) in the process of the development of model courses 1.13, 1.14 and 1.15.

Empowering Seafarers as Agents of Their Mental Health: The Role of Information and Communication Technology in Seafarers' Well-Being.

The academic literature seldom views information and communication technology (ICT) as a means to empower merchant seafarers in terms of their active and positive contributions to their mental health (MH) and overall well-being. Seafarers are often viewed as recipients and not the sources of health interventions. Using mixed methods, this paper examines how seafarers' MH has not been the top priority among seafarers themselves, and how ICT and formal education might empower seafarers in health promotion. The pervasive culture of "ship first" in the maritime industry is palpable in the findings of this study, where seafarers do not prioritize their MH because the ship's safe operations take precedence over everything else. Data shows that seafarers perceive MH interventions provided by companies as more useful when these have direct implications or effects on their families. In effect, seafarers may not see a priorities the physical and mental health support directly impacting their well-being. Nevertheless, there are some fundamental changes in the maritime industry in using technology to improve the MH of seafarers and their overall well-being, such as the development of MH applications ("apps"), helplines, or websites, coupled with the growing comfort of seafarers to use ICT.

Turning the Disruptive Power of Blockchain in the Insurance Market into Innovative Opportunities

Insurance has been around for more than centuries. This risk mitigation strategy has been utilized in maritime commerce as early thousand years ago, where Asian merchant seafarers were pooling together their wares in collective funds to pay for damages of individual’s capsized ship. In 2018, insurance industry made up 6% of global domestic product, and amounted to about 7-9% of the U.S.GDP;2020, the industry net premiums totalled $1.28 trillion, by 2030, blockchain insurance market value is estimated to reach $39.5 Billion. Despite of growing reform, the insurance market is dominated by intermediaries assisting people to match their insurance needs. While many predictions focused on artificial intelligence, cloud computing, blockchain stands out as the most disruptive technology that can change the driving forces underlying the global economy. This paper presents a blockchain business use case and how insurance market can turn disruptive power of this technology into innovative opportunities.

Suicide among transport industry workers: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Working in high-stress and male-dominated occupations is associated with an elevated risk of suicide. The current study sought to conduct the first systematic literature review and meta-analysis aimed at determining suicide risk across the diverse, high pressure and male-dominated transport industry (commercial aviation, merchant seafaring, transit/driving) as compared to the general/employed population. Searches of PubMed/Medline, Scopus and PsycINFO databases were conducted without date restriction until March 2021. Studies were included if they were written in English, were peer reviewed, and presented primary observational research data. Studies referring exclusively to suicidal ideation, suicide attempts, self-harm, and/or accidents were excluded. Following deletion of duplicates and non-English titles, a total of 4201 titles/abstracts were screened and 92 full-texts were read against inclusion/exclusion criteria. The final included sample consisted of 23 articles (16 used for meta-analysis). Results from the meta-analysis indicated that transport workers had a significantly elevated risk for suicide as compared to the general/employed population. Results were consistent across sensitivity analyses, and there was some variation across subgroup analyses. Overall, we found transport workers had a significantly higher risk for suicide than the general/employed population, and this appeared to be driven by the association for those working in merchant seafaring/maritime occupations. The findings are discussed in relation to an identified need for the development, implementation, and evaluation of tailored workplace suicide prevention strategies for transport industry workers.

Seafarers on the shore: issues raised by Australian doctors treating seafarers.

Seafarers on the shore: issues raised by Australian doctors treating seafarers.

Hearing Impairment in French Merchant Seafarers: Retrospective Study on Data from 8308 Audiometric Tests.

Background: A high level of occupational noise exposure has been noted in the fishing sector. Yet, less is known regarding other navigation groups, such as merchant seafarers, since a French study in the 1980s. This study assesses hearing impairment (HI) in a French merchant seafarers’ population. Methods: We collected data of all audiograms performed in 2018 and 2019 for French merchant seafarers. For each seafarer, hearing ability was measured in both ears using pure-tone audiometry at the following frequencies: 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 8 kHz. Hearing threshold levels (HTLs), or the intensity of sound below which no sound is detected, were measured in decibels Sound Pressure Level (dB SPL) at each frequency and recorded in 5 dB increments. For HI, we used the validated definition of the American Speech–Language–Hearing Association (ASHA). Results: We were able to include statistical analysis results of 8308 audiograms. In a multiple logistic regression adjusted for age, experience, and class of navigation, we found that experience of more than 14 years Odds Ratio OR 1.28 (CI 95% 1.07–1.53), age 31–40 OR 2.2 (CI 95% 1.4–3.4), and >40 years OR 14, 3 (IC 95% 9.7–21) and marine engineers OR 1.26 (IC 95% 1.01–1.57) were still risk factors for HI. Conclusion: In 2018, Marine engineers were still the workers’ group with a higher risk of HI in merchant seafarers but, notch at 4 Hz, specific of noise-induced hearing loss, has improved. They have an HI close to the definition of socioacousis and mean deficit differences with deck and services’ merchant seafarers improved. Our results could be interpreted as a limitation of occupational noise exposure impact in a merchant seafarers’ population, needing an improvement in prevention measures and also encouraged to continue to improve onboard working conditions.

Cancer incidence in a cohort of Swedish merchant seafarers between 1985 and 2011

PurposeLung cancer, mesothelioma and several lifestyle-associated cancer forms have been reported more common in merchant seafarers. However, few studies reflect recent occupational settings and women seafarers are usually too scarce for meaningful analyses. We conducted a study on cancer incidence between 1985 and 2011 in a Swedish cohort consisting of male and female seafarers.MethodsAll seafarers in the Swedish Seafarers’ Register with at least one sea service between 1985 and 2011 and a cumulated sea service time of ≥ 30 days (N = 75,745; 64% men, 36% women; 1,245,691 person-years) were linked to the Swedish Cancer Register and followed-up until 31 December 2011. Standardized incidence ratios (SIR) were calculated with the general population as reference.ResultsThere were 4159 cancer cases in total, with 3221 among men and 938 among women. Male seafarers had an increased risk of total cancer (SIR 1.05; 95% CI 1.01–1.09), lung cancer (SIR 1.51; 95% CI 1.35–1.67) and urinary bladder cancer (SIR 1.17; 95% CI 1.02–1.33). Several lifestyle-associated cancer forms were more common in men. Previous work on tankers was associated with leukaemia (SIR 1.41; 95% CI 1.00–1.86). The risk of cancer decreased with a start as a male seafarer after 1985, with a significant trend for total cancer (P < 0.001), lung cancer (P = 0.001) and, for tanker seafarers, leukaemia (P = 0.045). Women seafarers had an increased risk of lung cancer (SIR 1.54; 95% CI 1.23–1.87) but the risk of total cancer was not increased (SIR 0.83; 95% CI 0.78–0.89).ConclusionsIn this cohort of merchant Swedish seafarers 1985–2011, the risk of total cancer was increased in men but not in women compared to the general population. Lung cancer was increased in both genders. The risk of cancer seems to decrease over the last decades, but better exposure assessments to occupational carcinogens and longer observation times are needed.

Effects of an on-board psychosocial programme on stress, resilience, and job satisfaction amongst a sample of merchant seafarers.

Seafarers are an occupational group amongst those at highest risk for stress, which may adversely affect their mental health. The primary aim of this study was to assess the effects of a psychosocial programme on perceived stress, resilience, and job satisfaction among a sample of merchant seafarers. Secondary data analysis was conducted using a work questionnaire administered by a large shipping company. The matched subjects technique and multivariate analysis of covariance were conducted using a theoretical model of the programme's effects on job satisfaction, resilience, and perceived stress. A significant interaction between programme participation and weeks on board indicated that the effects of weeks on board on perceived stress differed significantly for the intervention group and matched control group. Weeks on board had a significant effect for perceived stress for the control group (p = 0.02), but not for the intervention group (p = 0.857). These findings indicate that participation in the programme moderated the effects of weeks on board on perceived stress, suggesting that the programme may have safeguarded participants against the effects of weeks on board on perceived stress. Importantly, however, a work environment that is experienced as supportive, inclusive and just is necessary as a cornerstone for individually-focused psychosocial interventions to be optimally applied.

Maritime Labour, Circulations of Struggle, and Constructions of Transnational Subaltern Agency: The Spatial Politics of the 1939 Indian Seafarers’ Strikes

AbstractThis paper explores the relations between maritime labour, the circulation of struggles between different sites, and constructions of transnational subaltern agency. It does this through engaging with the interconnected strikes of Indian merchant seafarers in ports and ships across the British Empire in the Autumn of 1939. These strikes broke out after the outbreak of the Second World War and were in part mobilised against the racialised inequalities which structured maritime labour. The paper foregrounds the relations between practices of blockading ships in ports through refusing to crew them and the circulation of the strikes between ships. I argue that this combination of spatial tactics shaped transnational forms of networked subaltern agency (Balachandran 2012, Globalizing Labour? Indian Seafarers and World Shipping, c. 1870−1945). To engage with the dynamics of subaltern agency through the strikes the paper explores the relations between trajectories of organising, the circulation of demands, and the formation of solidarities.

Batavia shipwreck timbers reveal a key to Dutch success in 17th-century world trade.

Ocean-going ships were key to rising maritime economies of the Early Modern period, and understanding how they were built is critical to grasp the challenges faced by shipwrights and merchant seafarers. Shipwreck timbers hold material evidence of the dynamic interplay of wood supplies, craftmanship, and evolving ship designs that helped shape the Early Modern world. Here we present the results of dendroarchaeological research carried out on Batavia’s wreck timbers, currently on display at the Western Australian Shipwrecks Museum in Fremantle. Built in Amsterdam in 1628 CE and wrecked on its maiden voyage in June 1629 CE in Western Australian waters, Batavia epitomises Dutch East India Company (Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, or VOC) shipbuilding. In the 17th century, the VOC grew to become the first multinational trading enterprise, prompting the rise of the stock market and modern capitalism. Oak (Quercus sp.) was the preferred material for shipbuilding in northern and western Europe, and maritime nations struggled to ensure sufficient supplies to meet their needs and sustain their ever-growing mercantile fleets and networks. Our research illustrates the compatibility of dendrochronological studies with musealisation of shipwreck assemblages, and the results demonstrate that the VOC successfully coped with timber shortages in the early 17th century through diversification of timber sources (mainly Baltic region, Lübeck hinterland in northern Germany, and Lower Saxony in northwest Germany), allocation of sourcing regions to specific timber products (hull planks from the Baltic and Lübeck, framing elements from Lower Saxony), and skillful woodworking craftmanship (sapwood was removed from all timber elements). These strategies, combined with an innovative hull design and the use of wind-powered sawmills, allowed the Dutch to produce unprecedented numbers of ocean-going ships for long-distance voyaging and interregional trade in Asia, proving key to their success in 17th-century world trade.

The coal trade surplus and merchant seafarers in British-Norwegian relations during the First World War

During the First World War, more than 800 Norwegian ships were sunk by hostile action, with a loss of about 2,100 seafarers. The Norwegian merchant fleet was extremely important for Norway's economy and for securing the import of vital goods. In addition, Britain and her allies needed goods carried in Norwegian merchant ships, such as coal shipped across the Channel to France. This article examines the relationship between Britain and Norway during the war, concentrating on the roles of two important resources, coal and maritime labour. The first part of the article outlines the wartime Anglo-Norwegian relationship. Negotiations around the so-called ‘coal trade surplus’, and how the surplus was allocated, are analysed in the second section. The coal trade surplus derived from British coal exports to Norway and was transferred from the British to the Norwegian Government in 1919. The British Ministry of Shipping, in recognition of the efforts of Norwegian seafarers, demanded that part of the surplus should be allocated to their well-being and to a memorial for the Norwegian merchant seafarers who had perished during the war.

Medical unfitness for work at sea: causes and incidence rate over a 12-year period in France

BackgroundThe purposes of the study were first to determine the incidence rate of medical unfitness for work at sea among French seafarers, second to identify the conditions (diseases or accidents) causing such incapacity so as to set up prevention measures where possible and third to ascertain whether there were any overrepresentations of diseases according to category of unfit seafarers (fishers, merchant seafarers, shellfish farmers and professional sailors).MethodsAn exhaustive, observational, descriptive, retrospective epidemiological and nosological study was carried out based on the medical coding of files stored in the Aesculapius® national database, which registers all medical data regarding seafarers presenting at the French seafarers’ health services. The increasing rate of permanent medical unfitness for work at sea was calculated in relation to the annual number of registered seafarers. A 12-year span was chosen in an attempt to ascertain the different sociodemographic categories associated with incapacity.ResultsIn all, 2392 seafarers were declared unfit for work at sea. This represents a permanent medical unfitness for work at sea incidence rate of below 1% for all French seafarers examined for medical fitness between 2005 and 2016.The average age of the population of unfit seafarers was 48. The average time spent at sea before being declared unfit for work at sea was 15.5 years. Sixty-seven percent of the seafarers declared unfit had been working in the fishing sector.The main reasons for deciding permanent unfitness for work at sea were: rheumatological conditions associated specifically with the spine; injuries relating to accidents or other external causes, mostly affecting the upper limbs; mental and behavioural disorders, including mood disorders and particularly addictions; and diseases of the circulatory system, namely coronopathies. The incidence rate of medical unfitness for work at sea was seen to increase between 2005 and 2016, but a decrease due to the dilution effect was noted in 2015.ConclusionsPermanent unfitness seldom occurs among French professional seafarers. Prevention measures must be focused on musculoskeletal disorders, psychiatric affections and coronary conditions as well as on combatting maritime accidents, especially in the professional fishing sector, where such affections and accidents are overrepresented.

Enabling equality of employment with insulin treated diabetes in safety‐critical occupations

Enabling equality of employment with insulin treated diabetes in safety‐critical occupations

Turning the tide: reducing mortality among Danish merchant seafarers

ObjectivesWhile life at sea traditionally has presented a variety of potential hazards, rigorous measures have been taken in the past decades to ensure the safety and health of all aboard...

Analisis Pengetahuan, Sikap, Dan Perilaku Anak Buah Kapal Deck Terhadap Penggunaan Personal Protective Equipment Di MV. Sendang Mas

This study aims to determine the knowledge, attitudes, and behavior of deck crew regarding the use of Personal Protective Equipment in MV. Sendang Mas. As well as to determine the suitability of knowledge, attitudes and behavior of the deck crew with the applicable rules. The type of research is descriptive with a quantitative approach. With a population of 24 crew on the MV. Sendang Mas by using purposive sampling of the crew of the ship deck, the number of samples in this study were 9 respondents. Retrieval of data obtained from distributing questionnaires, observations of crew members and interviews. The location of this research was carried out when the author was carrying out the practice of sailing on the MV. Sendang Mas. The results showed that the crew of MV. Sendang Mas has a good knowledge of Personal Protective Equipment with the knowledge indicator showing an average score of 3.44. A good attitude about Personal Protective Equipment with the attitude indicator shows an average score of 3.33. As well as having good behavior, with the use of Personal Protective Equipment which reached 98.7%. The knowledge, attitudes and behavior of the deck crew are not maximal and are not in accordance with the Code of Save Working Practice for Merchant Seafarers and SMM TE-S02 regarding Ship Safety Management Procedures for PT. Tirtamas Express.