Working Memory Research Articles

Directionality and Individual Differences in Consecutive Interpreting

This study aims to examine the students’ consecutive interpreting in English and Turkish. This study was carried out with 32 senior students who are native Turkish speakers at the Department of English Translation and Interpreting. The students were required to render the speeches chosen from the EU Speech Repository, a speech bank for interpreting studies, in the En-Tr and Tr-En directions, respectively. The students were audio-recorded. In addition, students’ working memory (WM) capacities were determined by conducting digit span and word span tests, and attention levels were determined by conducting monolingual and bilingual Stroop test. The data was assessed with the overall assessment score of consecutive interpreting performance, total duration, pauses, linguistic errors, participants’ individual differences (WM and attention level), and directionality. The recordings were transcribed and assessed by two experts. A detailed error analysis was performed using MAXQDA Analytics Pro Academic. Students with higher WM levels also have better performance in the En-Tr direction, yet this is not observed in the Tr-En. This can be explained by the fact that students have more difficulty and spend more time interpreting to L2 due to their language proficiency in translation (such as lack of vocabulary, difficulties related to structure, etc.). There was no significant relationship between students' attention skills and interpreting performance. Differences were also observed in the errors and strategies used by students depending on directionality. It is expected that this study will contribute to understanding the consecutive interpreting process, revealing the main difficulties, and thereby contributing to interpreter training.

Depression Symptoms Moderate Associations between Daily Functioning and Neuropsychological Performance in Mexican American Adults.

The influence of depression on the relationship between cognition and daily living in aging Mexican American adults requires further investigation, given projected trends in general growth as well as prevalence of depression and Alzheimer's disease and related dementias (ADRD) in this population. In the present study, we examined the extent to which depression (assessed using the Geriatric Depression Scale - 15 item version) moderated the association between reported daily functioning (assessed using the Functional Activities Questionnaire [FAQ]) and objective neuropsychological performance in aging Mexican American adults in the National Alzheimer's Coordinating Center cohort. Worse reported daily functioning (higher FAQ scores) was associated with worse memory and language performance among participants without elevated depression symptoms (ps < .05), but no associations were observed among those with elevated symptoms (ps > .05). Moreover, depression did not moderate associations of reported daily functioning with performance in attention and working memory or executive functioning and processing speed (ps > .05). Aging Mexican American adults with elevated depression symptoms may have subjective informant reports of daily functioning that are discrepant from their objective performance on formal tests of memory and language. Within the context of neuropsychological evaluations for ADRD, failure to adequately assess mood to inform the nature of cognitive and/or functional changes could result in misdiagnosis and lead to delayed, premature, and/or improper intervention with this population.

Neonatal hypoxia-ischemia alters the events governing the hippocampal critical period of postnatal synaptic plasticity leading to deficits in working memory in mice

The postnatal critical period of synaptic plasticity (CPsp) is characterized by profound neural network refinement, which is shaped by synaptic activity and sculpted by maturation of the GABAergic network. Even after therapeutic hypothermia (TH), neonatal hypoxia-ischemia (HI) impairs two triggers for the initiation of the CPsp in the hippocampus: i) PSA-NCAM developmental decline and ii) parvalbumin (PV) + interneuron (IN) maturation. Thus, we investigated whether neonatal HI despite TH disturbs other events governing the onset, consolidation and closure of the postnatal CPsp in the hippocampus. We induced cerebral HI in P10 C57BL6 mice with right carotid ligation and 45 m of hypoxia (FiO2 = 0.08), followed by normothermia (36 °C, NT) or TH (31 °C) for 4 h with anesthesia-exposed shams as controls. ELISA, immunoblotting and immunohistochemistry were performed at 24 h (P11), 5 days (P15), 8 days (P18) and 30 days (P40) after HI injury. We specifically assessed: i) BDNF levels and TrkB activation, controlling the CPsp, ii) Otx2 and NPTX2 immunoreactivity (IR), engaging CPsp onset and iii) NogoR1, Lynx1 IR, PNN formation and myelination (MBP) mediating CPsp closure. Pups aged to P40 also received a battery of tests assessing working memory. Here, we documented deficits in hippocampal BDNF levels and TrkB activation at P18 in response to neonatal HI even with TH. Neonatal HI impaired in the CA1 the developmental increase in PV, Otx2, and NPTX2 between P11 and P18, the colocalization of Otx2 and PV at P18 and P40, the accumulation of NPTX2 in PV+ dendrites at P18 and P40, and the expression of NogoR and Lynx1 at P40. Furthermore, neonatal HI decreased BDNF and impaired PNN development and myelination (MBP) at P40. Most of these abnormalities were insensitive to TH and correlated with memory deficits. Neonatal HI appears to disrupt many of the molecular and structural events initiating and consolidating the postnatal hippocampal CPsp, perhaps due to the early and delayed deficits in TrkB activation leading to memory deficits.

Pan-ErbB inhibition impairs cognition via disrupting myelination and aerobic glycolysis in oligodendrocytes

White matter (WM) abnormalities are an emerging feature of schizophrenia, yet the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms are largely unknown. Disruption of ErbB signaling, which is essential for peripheral myelination, has been genetically associated with schizophrenia and WM lesions in schizophrenic patients. However, the roles of ErbB signaling in oligodendrocytes remain elusive. Here, we used an in vivo pan-ErbB inhibition strategy and demonstrated the functions of endogenous ErbB receptors in oligodendrocytes. Through analyses of the cellular, histological, biochemical, behavioral, and electrophysiological differences in mice with manipulated ErbB activities in oligodendrocytes at different differentiation stages, we found that ErbB signaling regulates myelination and aerobic glycolysis in oligodendrocytes, and both functions are required for working memory. ErbB inhibition in oligodendrocytes at early differentiation stages induces hypomyelination by suppressing the myelinating capacity of newly formed oligodendrocytes. In contrast, ErbB inhibition in mature oligodendrocytes alters neither myelination nor oligodendrocyte numbers, but accelerates axonal conduction decline under energy stress. Mechanistically, ErbB inhibition attenuates K-Ras activities, leading to the reduced expression of lactate dehydrogenase A that promotes aerobic glycolysis in mature oligodendrocytes. Supplementation of L-lactate restores axonal conduction and working memory capacity that are suppressed by ErbB inhibition in mature oligodendrocytes. These findings emphasize the indispensable roles of ErbB signaling in WM integrity and function and provide insights into the multifaceted contributions of WM abnormalities to cognitive impairment.

Virtual reality-based music attention training for acquired brain injury: A randomized crossover study.

This single-blind randomized crossover study aimed to explore the effectiveness of virtual reality-based music attention training (VR-MAT) on cognitive function and examine its potential as a cognitive assessment tool in people with acquired brain injury (ABI). Overall, 24 participants with cognitive impairment secondary to a first-ever ABI underwent VR-MAT and conventional cognitive training (CCT) 3 months after onset. This was performed in two 4-week phases, over 8 weeks. During VR-MAT, participants engaged in attention training through a four-level virtual drumming program designed to enhance various attentional aspects. In contrast, during CCT, participants underwent structured conventional training, including card sorting and computerized training. Neuropsychological evaluations were performed preintervention, during the fourth and eighth weeks, and post-intervention using tests to evaluate attention and executive function, along with global neuropsychological assessments. In the VR-MAT group, significant differences were observed between pre- and post-intervention in the trail making test-black and white version B (p=0.009) and version B-A (p=0.018) and clinical dementia rating-sum of boxes (p=0.035). In the CCT group, significant differences were observed in spatial working memory (p=0.005) and the mini-mental state examination scores (p=0.003). VR-MAT is an effective cognitive intervention that is particularly beneficial for improving attention in people with ABI.

Linking the evolution of two prefrontal brain regions to social and foraging challenges in primates.

The diversity of cognitive skills across primates remains both a fascinating and a controversial issue. Recent comparative studies provided conflicting results regarding the contribution of social vs ecological constraints to the evolution of cognition. Here, we used an interdisciplinary approach combining comparative cognitive neurosciences and behavioral ecology. Using brain imaging data from 16 primate species, we measured the size of two prefrontal brain regions, the frontal pole (FP) and the dorso-lateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), respectively, involved in metacognition and working memory, and examined their relation to a combination of socio-ecological variables. The size of these prefrontal regions, as well as the whole brain, was best explained by three variables: body mass, daily traveled distance (an index of ecological constraints), and population density (an index of social constraints). The strong influence of ecological constraints on FP and DLPFC volumes suggests that both metacognition and working memory are critical for foraging in primates. Interestingly, FP volume was much more sensitive to social constraints than DLPFC volume, in line with laboratory studies showing an implication of FP in complex social interactions. Thus, our data highlights the relative weight of social vs ecological constraints on the evolution of specific prefrontal brain regions and their associated cognitive operations in primates.

Linking the evolution of two prefrontal brain regions to social and foraging challenges in primates

The diversity of cognitive skills across primates remains both a fascinating and a controversial issue. Recent comparative studies provided conflicting results regarding the contribution of social vs ecological constraints to the evolution of cognition. Here, we used an interdisciplinary approach combining comparative cognitive neurosciences and behavioral ecology. Using brain imaging data from 16 primate species, we measured the size of two prefrontal brain regions, the frontal pole (FP) and the dorso-lateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), respectively, involved in metacognition and working memory, and examined their relation to a combination of socio-ecological variables. The size of these prefrontal regions, as well as the whole brain, was best explained by three variables: body mass, daily traveled distance (an index of ecological constraints), and population density (an index of social constraints). The strong influence of ecological constraints on FP and DLPFC volumes suggests that both metacognition and working memory are critical for foraging in primates. Interestingly, FP volume was much more sensitive to social constraints than DLPFC volume, in line with laboratory studies showing an implication of FP in complex social interactions. Thus, our data highlights the relative weight of social vs ecological constraints on the evolution of specific prefrontal brain regions and their associated cognitive operations in primates.

Distinct Hippocampal Expression Profiles of lncRNAs in Obese Type 2 Diabetes Mice Exhibiting Cognitive Impairment.

Cognitive dysfunction has been accepted as a possible complication of type 2 diabetes (T2D), but few studies revealed the potential roles of Long non‑coding RNAs (lncRNAs) in cognitive dysfunction in T2D. The current research aims to demonstrate the specific expression patterns of lncRNA-mRNA in the hippocampi of T2D db/db mice exhibiting cognitive impairment. In this study, the results from behavioral tests showed that T2D db/db mice displayed short-term and spatial working memory deficits compared to db/m mice. Furthermore, western blot analysis demonstrated that compared with db/m mice, p-GSK3β (ser9) protein levels were markedly elevated in T2D db/db mice (P < 0.01). In addition, though not statistically significant, the ratio of p-Tau (Ser396) to Tau 46, α-Synuclein expression, and p-GSK3α (ser21) expression were also relatively higher in T2D db/db mice than in db/m mice. The microarray profiling revealed that 75 lncRNAs and 26 mRNAs were dysregulated in T2D db/db mice (> 2.0 fold change, P < 0.05). GO analysis demonstrated that the differentially expressed mRNAs participated in immune response, extracellular membrane-bounded organelle, and extracellular region. KEGG analysis revealed that the differentially expressed mRNAs were mainly involved in one carbon pool by folate, glyoxylate and dicarboxylate metabolism, autophagy, glycine, serine and threonine metabolism, and B cell receptor signaling pathway. A lncRNA‑mRNA coexpression network containing 71 lncRNAs and 26 mRNAs was built to investigate the interaction between lncRNA and mRNA. Collectively, these results revealed the differential hippocampal expression profiles of lncRNAs in T2D mice with cognitive dysfunction, and the findings from this study provide new clues for exploring the potential roles of lncRNAs in the pathogenesis of cognitive dysfunction in T2D.

Prenatal risk factors for child executive function at 3–5 years of age: the roles of maternal mood, substance use, and socioeconomic adversity in a prospective cohort study

BackgroundA growing body of literature links prenatal mood and substance use to children's cognitive and behavioral development. The relative contribution of these risk factors on children's executive function (EF) in the context of socioeconomic adversities needs further evaluation. To address this gap, we investigated the role of prenatal maternal anxiety and depression on childhood EF, specifically inhibitory control and working memory, within the context of socioeconomic adversities and prenatal substance use. We hypothesized that higher maternal mood symptoms, higher persistent prenatal drinking and smoking, and lower socioeconomic status would be associated with lower EF skills during early childhood.MethodsWe used data from 334 mother–child dyads followed prospectively through pregnancy and the offspring’s childhood. Prenatal maternal depression and anxiety were assessed via standardized questionnaires. Prenatal alcohol and tobacco consumption were assessed via a timeline follow-back interview. The EF touch battery assessed child inhibitory control and working memory at 3–5 years of age (4.76 ± 0.58 years, 171 females). Separate linear regression models were used to estimate the association of prenatal tobacco, alcohol, anxiety, and depression exposure with our two components of child EF, inhibitory control and working memory, while adjusting for gestational age, sex, and age at assessment. The following variables were also included as covariates: maternal educational achievement, employment status, parity, and household crowding index.ResultsChildren of mothers with high trait anxiety scores had reduced inhibitory control compared to children of mothers without trait anxiety or depression (β = -0.12, 95% CI:-0.22,-0.01). Children of mothers in the moderate to high continuous smoking group showed lower inhibitory control (β = − 0.19, 95% CI:-0.38,-0.01) compared to children of mothers in the none smoking group. Additionally, lower maternal education and higher household crowding were each associated with reduced inhibitory control. We found no significant association between prenatal maternal depression, anxiety, or socioeconomic factors with working memory.ConclusionsThese results underscore the need for comprehensive context-specific intervention packages, including mental health support for women to promote healthy inhibitory control development in children.

Child maltreatment and executive function development throughout adolescence and into young adulthood.

Child maltreatment impacts approximately one in seven children in the United States, leading to adverse outcomes throughout life. Adolescence is a time period critical for the development of executive function, but there is little research examining how abuse and neglect may differently affect the developmental trajectories of executive function throughout adolescence and into young adulthood. In the current study, 167 adolescents participated at six time points from ages 14 to 20. At each time point, adolescents completed behavioral tasks measuring the three dimensions of executive function (working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility). Neglect and abuse in early life (ages 1-13) were reported at ages 18-19. Unconditional growth curve models revealed age-related improvement in all three executive function dimensions. Conditional growth curve models tested the prospective effects of recalled neglect and abuse on the developmental trajectories of executive function. The results revealed that neglect was associated with developmental changes in working memory abilities, such that greater levels of neglect during ages 1-13 were associated with slower increases in working memory abilities across ages 14-20. These findings highlight the adverse consequences of early neglect experiences shown by delayed working memory development during adolescence into young adulthood.

Short-term sensorimotor training incorporating cognitive tasks for pediatric survivors of posterior fossa tumors: a pilot study.

Posterior fossa tumors account for half of all childhood brain tumors, prompting the search for effective and affordable interventions to combat the neurocognitive and motor sequelae of the tumor and its treatment. The main aim of this pilot study was to evaluate the feasibility and effects of sensorimotor training incorporating cognitive tasks for a group of pediatric survivors of posterior fossa tumors. A total of 48 participants (Mage= 12.3 ± 3.25 years, 41.7% female; 56% with malignant tumors) in remission after completing treatment for posterior fossa tumors were enrolled. Participants received 3 weeks of sensorimotor training targeting visual-motor and cognitive abilities on a FitLight Trainer™. The protocol consisted of 2-3 15-minute training sessions per week, with each session including tasks designed to promote: (1) eye-hand and eye-foot coordination and motor control (simple sensorimotor reaction task); (2) inhibitory control (inhibition task); (3) inhibitory control and working memory (color task). Participants completed an average of six sessions, indicating a moderate adherence rate. Results showed a significant reduction in visuomotor reaction time across age and tumor subgroups in nearly all tasks, which might indicate improvement in the targeted functions, with performance characteristics varying across subgroups. The results suggest that training might be a feasible intervention to promote visual-motor performance in pediatric survivors of posterior fossa tumors across age and tumor type groups, however, further research should address the assessment issues and other limitations of the present study, to provide a more substantial justification for the use of this training.

The burden of executive dysfunction after ischemic stroke (Bulgaria, 2019-2021)

Abstract Background Executive dysfunctions have great impact on behavior and quality of life in elderly. They also play important role for post-stroke functional outcome. The aim of our study was to examine the frequency, severity and types of executive dysfunctions at the third month after the ischemic stroke. Methods We examined 108 patients 3 months after ischemic stroke (66.67±9.03 years old, 66 males and 42 females) via 128-Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST). WCST is a standardized instrument for detecting various executive dysfunctions. It is applicable for patients after stroke, because the test doesn’t require preserved arm motor functions. It measures global executive functioning (GEF), inhibitory control system (ICS), executive attention (EA), cognitive flexibility (CF) and working memory (WM). Our patients’ results were compared to the normal population test results. SPSS 24 was used for statistical analysis. Results Impaired GEF were found in 46% of our patients, most of them had mild or moderate impairment. One fourth of them showed impaired ICS, although the impairment in most of the cases was mild. EA deficits were found in 43% of our cases (17% had mild, 15% mild to moderate, 7% moderate and 4% severe impairment). WM dysfunction was found in 1/3 of them (the average result was about 27 percentiles; 29% had mild and 5% had mild to moderate deficits) and about ¼ of our patients had borderline results. CF was impaired in 68% of our patients (11% had mild, 28% mild to moderate, 16% moderate and 13% severe impairment). Conclusions GEF impairment is frequent after stroke. Patients had problems in ICS, EA, CF and WM. However, in most of the cases the dysfunction is mild or moderate and can be found only if it is actively searched and accessed. The most impaired functions were CF and EA. Patients with executive dysfunction require cognitive rehabilitation and specific social support. Key messages • Executive dysfunctions are frequent after ischemic stroke. The impairment is mild or moderate, but however it impacts the quality of life, behavior, prognosis and outcome of post-stroke survivors. • Patients with executive dysfunctions require specific cognitive rehabilitation and social support.

Not all objects are created equal: The object benefit in visual working memory is supported by greater recollection-like memory, but only for memorable objects

Not all objects are created equal: The object benefit in visual working memory is supported by greater recollection-like memory, but only for memorable objects

Prioritizing working memory resources depends on prefrontal cortex.

Although higher-order cognition depends on working memory, the resources that support our memory are severely limited in capacity. To mitigate this limitation, we allocate memory resources according to the behavioral relevance of items. Nonetheless, the neural basis of these abilities remain unclear. Here, we tested the hypothesis that a region in lateral prefrontal cortex controls prioritization in working memory. Indeed, perturbing this region with transcranial magnetic stimulation disrupted the prioritization of working memory resources. Our results provide causal evidence for the hypothesis that prefrontal cortex primarily controls the allocation of memory resources, rather than storing the contents of working memory.

The relationship between executive functions and mathematics achievements in early-grade elementary students

ABSTRACT Mathematics, along with reading and writing, is a core academic subject in the school curriculum. The development of mathematical skills is influenced by various cognitive factors, with executive functions (EF) playing a central role. EF, which encompasses working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility, is critical for supporting complex cognitive processes required for problem-solving and mathematical reasoning. Research consistently shows that children with stronger EF tend to achieve better academic outcomes, including in mathematics. The goal of the present study was to examine the relationships between the global EF and its three core components – working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility – and their impact on mathematics achievement. The sample for this study consisted of 180 children, aged 8–11 years (mean age: 9.6, SD: 1.0 year; 83 girls, 97 boys). EF was assessed using the Yellow-Red test, while mathematics achievement was evaluated based on teachers’ evaluations of the child’s mathematics performance. The results indicated a statistically significant effect of global EF and its three components on mathematics achievement. Given the potential malleability of EFs, we conclude with recommendations for strategies to enhance EF development at an early school age.

Cardiorespiratory fitness and working memory in persons with traumatic brain injury: a cross-sectional analysis

ABSTRACT Introduction Cognitive impairment is a highly impactful consequence of traumatic brain injury (TBI) and there are limited evidence-based treatment practices to combat these impairments. Evidence from other populations suggest that aerobic exercise training (AET) is beneficial for a variety of cognitive deficits, but the research in persons with TBI to date is equivocal. One potential reason is the heterogeneity of exercise prescriptions and outcome measures. This stems from the fact that studies have not been designed based on previous data supporting a specific AET prescription to target a cognitive domain. The primary purpose of this cross-sectional analysis was to examine the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), as a cross-sectional surrogate of AET, and cognition in persons with TBI to inform future research. Methods Cross-sectional analysis was conducted on baseline data of persons with TBI who completed neuropsychological assessments to evaluate several cognitive domains and a cardiopulmonary exercise test (CPET) to measure CRF. Based on the normal distribution of an outcome, Pearson’s r or Spearman’s ρ was calculated to measure the relationship between CRF and cognition. Results Data were analyzed for all participants who demonstrated valid CPETs (n = 21 of 29). Based on the cycle ergometer-based norms of CRF, males in this sample were in the 69th percentile and females in this sample were in the 56th percentile, with high variability across individuals. Higher CRF, as measured by peak power output (Wpeak), was significantly associated with greater working memory (ρ = 0.465, p = 0.017), even after post-hoc corrections. Conclusions These data suggest average and highly variable CRF in persons with TBI of all severity and support cycle ergometry-based CPET testing in this population. Further, these data provide support for future research applying AET to target working memory and possibly other executive functions in persons with TBI. This research is a small step toward large-scale randomized controlled trials that can directly impact clinical care to treat cognitive symptoms post-TBI.

Enhancing visual working memory in schizophrenia: effects of frontoparietal theta tACS in low-performing patients

Schizophrenia is a complex neuro-psychiatric disorder including positive symptoms, negative symptoms, and cognitive deficits. A key cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia is a deficit in visual working memory (VWM). VWM involves three distinct stages: encoding, maintenance, and retrieval. The deficit in any one stage would produce the same symptom (i.e., poor VWM), although their causes are not the same. In this study, we used a retro-cue VWM task that provides helpful cues at different stages: early in maintenance (early cue), late in maintenance (late cue), or during retrieval (retrieval cue). This modification would help “tag” or identify the cognitive stage(s) most responsible for impaired VWM performance in schizophrenia. Additionally, we took advantage of this tagging feature and applied 6 Hz transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) over the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and right posterior parietal cortex (PPC)—which has previously been shown to enhance VWM in low-performing healthy individuals—to examine whether tACS would improve a specific stage or all stages of VWM processing in schizophrenia. We observed that cues significantly enhanced performance in low-performing patients, who benefited equally from early and late maintenance cues, but not from retrieval cues. These low-performers also responded well to theta tACS in their overall VWM performance as opposed to a specific VWM stage. No improvement effect was observed in high-performing patients for both retro cue and tACS. Together, our data suggest that 1) low-performing patients’ VWM deficits likely stem from poor memory consolidation rather than retrieval, 2) right frontoparietal theta tACS can improve low-performing patients’ VWM performance, and 3) such facilitatory tACS effect is not selective of a specific VWM stage and thus is likely driven by an improvement in overall visual attention.

Is It Possible to Combine Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation and Evidence-Based Psychosocial Interventions in Schizophrenia? A Critical Review

In schizophrenia, it was suggested that an integrated and multimodal approach, combining pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions, could improve functional outcomes and clinical features in patients living with schizophrenia (PLWS). Among these alternatives, evidence-based psychosocial interventions (EBPIs) and Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation (NIBS) represent feasible treatment options targeting the clinical features that are unmet needs of PLWS (especially negative and cognitive symptoms). As no clear evidence is available on the combination of these non-pharmacological approaches, this review aimed to collect the available literature on the combination of EBPIs and NIBS in the treatment of PLWS. We demonstrated that the field of combining EBPIs and NIBS in schizophrenia is in its infancy, as only 11 studies were reviewed. In fact, only a few trials, with divergent results, combined these non-pharmacological modalities; while emerging evidence is available on the combination of cognitive remediation and rTMS/iTBS, inconclusive results were obtained. Conversely, albeit preliminary, more solid findings are available on the combination of HF-rTMS and family intervention. Moreover, despite the fact that cognitive activation could not be considered an EBPI, promising results are available in combination with tDCS to improve the working memory domain. To overcome these limitations, we considered several methodological issues to promote research in this field.

Phonological skills and executive functions: their effects on reading and arithmetic abilities across varied performance levels using quantile regression

ABSTRACT We aimed to investigate the effects of phonological awareness – PA, rapid automatised naming – RAN, visuospatial and verbal working memory – WM and executive functions – EF on the reading and arithmetic skills of children with low- to medium-performance levels. Participants were 472 Brazilian children from 3rd to 5th grades. Quantile Regression Analysis was employed. The PA, RAN and EF were shared main predictors of both reading and math. Verbal WM emerged as a unique main predictor for reading, while visuospatial WM and visuospatial short-term memory were the main predictors for arithmetic. Among children with very low reading proficiency, the effects of cognitive predictors were more pronounced, a trend not observed in arithmetic. The results suggest varying magnitudes of cognitive predictors for reading when considering different levels of performance/difficulties. We also corroborate unique and shared main predictors of reading and math that have implications for research, clinical and educational settings.

Clinical Utility of Virtual Kitchen Errand Task for Children (VKET-C) as a Functional Cognition Evaluation for Children with Developmental Disabilities

Background/Objectives: This study evaluated the clinical utility of a virtual reality (VR)-based kitchen error task for children (VKET-C) to assess functional cognition in children. Methods: In total, 38 children aged 7–12 years were included, comprising 23 typically developing (TD) children and 15 children with developmental disabilities (DDs), including autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and intellectual disability. While performing the VKET-C, performance errors were analyzed. The Stockings of Cambridge (SOC) and Spatial Working Memory (SWM) tasks from the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) were used to assess cognitive function. The Brunner–Munzel test was performed to compare performance errors between the TD and DD groups, and correlations between performance errors and cognitive measures were analyzed. Results: Omission and commission errors were significantly different between the groups (p &lt; 0.001), with no significant difference in motor errors (p &gt; 0.05). Omission errors were correlated with the initial thinking time mean (ITMN) in all items of the SOC task and the between errors (BE) of the SWM task. Commission errors were correlated with the ITMN in the difficult items of the SOC task and the BE of the SWM task. Additionally, motor errors were significantly correlated with problems solved in minimum moves (PSMM) and ITMN in the difficult items of the SOC task and BE in the SWM task. Conclusions: The VKET-C shows promise as an effective tool for assessing executive function and working memory in children with DDs, offering an engaging and ecologically valid alternative to traditional methods.