Digit Span Research Articles

Maternal trauma exposure is linked to adult offspring's cognitive functioning in the context of mass violence.

This study aimed to examine whether mothers' level of trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms are related to their offspring's cognitive functioning. Mothers exposed to the 1994 genocide perpetrated against the Tutsi (N = 181) and one of their adult offspring were recruited in Rwanda. Mothers and their offspring answered questionnaires on sociodemographic information, the level of trauma exposure, and PTSD symptoms. They also performed a backward digit span task and a similarity task to assess their working memory and abstract reasoning, respectively. Hierarchical regression models were used to analyze the data. Mothers' level of trauma exposure, but not PTSD symptoms, was significantly related to their offspring's abstract reasoning performance after controlling for offspring's age, sex, and economic status. The relationship between mothers' level of trauma exposure, PTSD symptoms, and their offspring's working memory performance was not significant. Offspring's education was significantly linked to their working memory and abstract reasoning performance. The findings demonstrate that the intergenerational transmission of trauma can impact the cognitive functioning of the next generation. These results also illustrate the profound and long-term human impact of mass violence. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Executive functions in older adults with generalised anxiety disorder and healthy controls: Associations with heart rate variability, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, and physical fitness

Executive functions (EF) decline with age and this decline in older adults with generalised anxiety disorder (GAD) may be influenced by heart rate variability (HRV), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and physical fitness. Understanding these relationships is important for tailored treatments in this population. In this study, 51 adults with GAD (M age = 66.46, SD = 4.08) and 51 healthy controls (M age = 67.67, SD = 4.04) were assessed on cognitive inhibition (Stroop task), shifting (Trails part 4), flexibility (Wisconsin Card Sorting Test – Perseverative errors), working memory (Digit Span Backwards), IQ (Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence), high frequency HRV, serum mature BDNF levels, and VO2 max. Results indicated that participants with GAD exhibited better cognitive inhibition compared to controls, with no general reduction in EF. Cognitive inhibition was predicted by gender, HRV, and BDNF levels, while cognitive shifting was predicted by gender and IQ, and cognitive flexibility and working memory by IQ. The enhanced cognitive inhibition in GAD participants might stem from maladaptive use of this function, characteristic of GAD, or protection from EF decline due to normal HRV. Increased BDNF levels, possibly due to good fitness, or compensatory mechanisms related to the disorder, might also play a role. These findings highlight the complexity of EF and related mechanisms in GAD, highlighting the need for interventions that consider both cognitive and physiological factors for optimal outcomes.

Investigating mental workload across task modalities: a multimodal analysis using pupillometry

Understanding mental workload is challenging due to its multidimensional nature and varying sensitivities of its primary measures: task performance, perceived workload, and physiological responses. This study investigates the effects of task load on performance, perceived workload, and pupil measures across different information modalities. A within-subjects experiment involving three tasks (digit span, matrix span, and dual n-back) was conducted with three task load levels. Workload measures included accuracy/sensitivity, reaction time, NASA-TLX, peak pupil diameter, and peak pupil latency. Consistent patterns of associations between task load and these workload measures were found across the three modalities. Workload measures revealed a nuanced interplay between task modality and task load. Robustness of peak pupil latency, accuracy, and NASA-TLX was highlighted across verbal and visual modalities, while peak pupil diameter showed a weaker impact with differences between modalities. The findings encourage multivariate assessment of mental workload to account for different task modalities.

The positive effect of ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on the cognitive function of children and adolescents with lipid metabolism disorders

Aim. To study the effect of ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) on the cognitive functions of children with lipid metabolism disorders of different ages. Materials and methods. The study included 87 children aged 6 to 17 years who had not previously received ω-3 PUFA supplements. All subjects were tested twice, with an interval of 6 months, to determine the ω-3 erythrocyte index by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and to study attention span and focusing using the correction task method (Bourdon test). The cohort was randomly divided into two groups: the main group, which included 60 children who received the ω-3 supplements, and the control group, which included 27 children who did not receive any nutritional supplements. Results. In children of the main group, after receiving the Norwegian fish oil NFO® at 1000 mg for 6 months, an increase in the erythrocyte ω-3 index was observed, while in the control group, it did not change significantly. A statistically significant correlation was found between the adequacy of ω-3 PUFA and the attention span and focusing. Conclusion. The results of the study showed the effectiveness of ω-3 PUFA supplementation at 1000 mg/day for 6 months and confirmed the positive effect of ω-3 PUFA on the cognitive sphere of children and adolescents. High-quality food supplements with ω-3 PUFAs at 1000 mg/day can be recommended to develop intellection, memory, and attention span and focus in children and adolescents.

Working memory as a predictor of reading and listening comprehension in EFL college students: A reinvestigation

This study re-examines the role of working memory in aural/oral comprehension among English as a Foreign Language (EFL) college students, building upon previous research (Aldosari & Mekheimer, 2018). The investigation aims to determine the predictive relationship between working memory span and both reading and listening comprehension skills, with a particular focus on understanding whether specific working memory components contribute differentially to comprehension abilities. A sample of 100 female and 100 male EFL college students participated. Participants were administered working memory tasks, including the WRMT-III Passage Comp. subtest, followed by standardized reading and listening comprehension tests (WIAT II). Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that the WRMT-III Passage Comp. subtest was a powerful predictor of both reading and listening comprehension, consistently across genders. This subtest made a significant unique contribution to predicting comprehension skills even when controlling for other working memory components. T-tests revealed no significant differences in comprehension scores between male and female participants. The study highlights the crucial role of working memory in EFL college students' aural/oral comprehension and underscores the potential of the WRMT-III Passage Comp. subtest as a valuable tool for assessing working memory skills relevant to language learning. Further research examining the influence of individual working memory components on specific comprehension skills is recommended.

A Matter of Memory? Age-Invariant Relative Clause Disambiguation and Memory Interference in Older Adults.

Past research suggests that Working Memory plays a role in determining relative clause attachment bias. Disambiguation preferences may further depend on Processing Speed and explicit memory demands in linguistic tasks. Given that Working Memory and Processing Speed decline with age, older adults offer a way of investigating the factors underlying disambiguation preferences. Additionally, older adults might be subject to more severe similarity-based memory interference given their larger vocabularies and slower lexical access. Nevertheless, memory interference and sentence disambiguation have not been combined in studies on older adults before. We used a self-paced reading paradigm under memory load interference conditions. Older (n=30) and Younger (n=35) readers took part in the study online; reading times were recorded and measures of comprehension accuracy and load recall were collected. This setup allowed for the implicit measurement of attachment biases and memory interference effects interactively. Results show that similarity-based interference affected both age groups equally, but was more pronounced in NP2-biased structures, which took participants generally longer to read. Attachment preferences did not differ by group and were unaffected by Working Memory span. However, accuracy on recall prompts was predicted by Working Memory span in both groups. Findings of greater interference in syntactically dispreferred structures support unified processing models where parsing constraints naturally interact. The lack of age differences on our measures further aligns with research finding age-invariant implicit language processing.

Cloud-Enabled Mobile-Based Approach for Enhancing Psychosis Cognitive Assessment.

The study aims to assess the feasibility of developing cognitive tools and integrating the cloud-enabled mobile-based technology into routine clinical practice for psychotic patients. Furthermore, it aims to investigate the correlation between the results obtained using developed tools and established clinical measures, offering valuable insights into tools for enhancing the accuracy, efficiency and ease of administration of cognitive evaluation. A total of 160 participants were recruited (83 outpatients with early course of schizophrenia (SZs) and 77 healthy controls [HCs]). The participants were subjected to cognitive assessments, and the data were collected by cognitive assessment digital smart tool (CADST) and PGI memory scale (PGIMS) to assess attention (ATT) and working memory (WM). Outcome measures of these parameters were digit span (score,time) for ATT and delayed recall (score,time) for WM. The total average score in HCs was significantly higher than in SZs for ATT and WM, and CADST was significantly correlated with PGIMS for evaluating ATT and WM. Furthermore, test completion times for ATT and WM were observed more in SZs although most of SZs had achieved scores as high as that of HCs. The potential of CADST as a valuable addition to the conventional cognitive assessment method is highlighted, showing promising feasibility and strong correlations with the established tool. The importance of integrating time parameters suggests broader implications for understanding cognitive function beyond conventional scoring metrics. It demonstrates the effective and accurate approach for large-scale screening of cognitive parameters in public service settings.

Diversity in perceptual, social, and executive functions in preschoolers from Germany and Iran

The cultural background and age shape the cognitive and social development of children. This study aimed to compare perceptual, executive, and social functioning in two age groups of preschoolers from Germany and Iran. One hundred sixty-five children (83 Iranian and 82 German) participated in the study, with 87 children aged three years and 78 children aged four years. The participants completed a series of tasks to assess different cognitive functions, including the theory of mind as a measure of social cognition, picture mental rotation test to evaluate spatial ability, and several tests including digit span, Corsi block tapping, day-night, grass-snow, dimensional change card sort, and active and passive vocabulary tests to assess executive functions. The findings revealed that German children performed better than their Iranian peers regarding spatial ability and theory of mind. Additionally, German children outperformed Iranian children in working memory, cognitive flexibility, and verbal fluency, while Iranian children demonstrated better inhibitory control. Furthermore, the correlational analysis indicated that in German children, executive function correlated with the theory of mind, whereas in Iranian children, executive function was associated with perceptual functions. Age impacted the results. These results highlight the role of cultural factors in shaping cognitive functioning and emphasize the need to consider cultural influences when examining cognitive development in different populations.

Symptom validity testing in adults with clinically diagnosed ADHD: comparison of the Conner’s Adult ADHD Rating Scale (CAARS) and the Self-Report Symptom Inventory (SRSI)

ABSTRACT Objectives Compared to the number of performance validity measures, the range of available symptom validity measures is limited. The Self-Report Symptom Inventory (SRSI) is a recently developed freestanding symptom validity test with promising psychometric characteristics for use on non-criminal forensic and a range of clinical populations. The goal of this study was to evaluate the utility of the SRSI for symptom validity testing in the clinical evaluation of adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Methods This analogue study compared 76 German patients diagnosed with ADHD (age range 19–63 years) with typically developing individuals from the Netherlands/Germany who were assigned to either a control group (N = 58; age range 18–73 years) or a simulation group (N = 46; age range 18–57 years). All participants completed the Conners’ Adult ADHD Rating Scale (CAARS) with its two embedded validity indicators Infrequency Index (CII) and ADHD Credibility Index (ACI), the SRSI, and the Digit Span (to derive the Reliable Digit Span). Results Specificity in controls was perfect for the CAARS, but reached only about 90% for the SRSI. In contrast, sensitivity in experimental simulators ranged from 24% to 65% for the CAARS, but reached high rates of 69% to 82% for the SRSI. In the sample of patients with ADHD, the failure rate ranged from 8% to 34% (CAARS), and 33% to 47% (SRSI). Further, we found limited classification agreement between the validity measures. Conclusion The divergent results on the different validity indicators reflects the ongoing discussion on poor construct unity and clarity, and calls for more research addressing the heterogeneous construct. The utility of the SRSI to reliably distinguish between valid and invalid symptom report in the clinical evaluation of adult ADHD has to be investigated by more refined studies including both symptom and performance validity indicators.

Effect of moderate-intensity aquatic treadmill exercise on cognitive function and cerebral blood flow for healthy older adults

To compare the effect of moderate-intensity aquatic treadmill exercise (ATM) on cerebral blood flow (CBF) and cognitive function in healthy older adults to that of moderate-intensity land-based treadmill exercise (LTM). This randomized controlled trial study was conducted between May 2023 and Oct 2023. Twenty-eight participants aged 60–80 were randomly assigned to either ATM group (N = 14) or LTM group (N = 14). Cognitive function and cerebral blood flow were assessed before and after the exercise. The outcome measures used in this study were the Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST) and the Digit Span Test (DST) to assess cognitive performance, and the mean middle cerebral artery blood velocity (MCAvmean) to evaluate CBF. A mixed effects model was used to analyze the within-group and between-group differences in cognitive function and CBF outcomes pre-to-post treadmill by SPSS. The DSST demonstrated a statistically significant improvement within both the ATM [β ± SE: −13.643 ± 2.407, 95 % CI: −18.749, −8.537] and LTM [β ± SE: −19.25 ± 3.66, 95 % CI: −26.424, −12.076] groups, indicating clinical significance in both groups. Both ATM and LTM groups exhibited post-exercise improvements within their respective groups for forward Digit Span Test (FDST) [ATM β ± SE: −0.143 ± 0.362, 95 % CI: −0.92, 0.634; LTM β ± SE: −0.286 ± 0.37, 95 % CI: −1.078, 0.506] and backward Digit Span Test (BDST) (ATM β ± SE: −1.741 ± 5.377, 95 % CI: −13.27, 9.792; LTM β ± SE: −6.729 ± 5.370, 95 % CI: −4.788, 18.24). In terms of MCAvmean, there is a higher improvement of CBF in ATM group [β ± SE: −138.669 ± 67.9217, 95 % CI: −288.164, 10.826] than LTM group [β ± SE: −9.305 ± 70.076, 95 % CI: −153.617, 135.007]. Hence, a single bout of moderate-intensity ATM and LTM can enhance cognitive function and CBF in healthy older adults, suggesting their potential as preventive strategies against age-related declines.

Neuropsychological Correlates of Clinical Progression in Subjective Cognitive Decline.

Subjective cognitive decline (SCD) refers to self-reported cognitive decline in individuals with normal performance on standardized cognitive tests. Understanding the factors predicting progression from SCD to mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is crucial, as approximately 14% of SCD cases progress to dementia and about 27% develop MCI over four years. This study aims to identify neuropsychological predictors of progression from SCD to MCI, focusing on cognitive domains assessed through neuropsychological tests. This retrospective study at Seoul National University Bundang Hospital analyzed a cohort of 107 patients diagnosed with SCD through comprehensive assessment. Patients underwent annual neuropsychological testing, including the Digit Span Test, Boston Naming Test, Rey Complex Figure Test, Seoul Verbal Learning Test, and Stroop Test. Annually, these patients underwent neuropsychological tests over a 5-year period; 24 progressed to MCI per NIA-AA criteria. Key predictors of MCI progression included age, ischemic heart disease, and scores from the forward digit span, delayed recall, and Boston naming tests. Lower scores in delayed recall and Boston naming tests significantly correlated with a higher risk of MCI (p < 0.001). These findings suggest a need for targeted management of memory and language functions to monitor disease progression effectively.

High-density lipoprotein over midlife and future cognition in women: The SWAN HDL ancillary study.

Limited data provides evidence-based insights on the association between comprehensive metrics of high-density lipoproteins (HDL) and cognitive performance, especially in midlife women for whom benefit might be the greatest. To assess the associations of serum HDL metrics including HDL lipid content [HDL cholesterol, phospholipid (HDL-PL), triglyceride], proteins/subclasses [apolipoprotein A-1 (apoA-1); small, medium, large, total HDL particle (HDL-P); and HDL size], and cholesterol efflux capacity with cognitive performance in midlife women. This prospective cohort study was conducted among 503 midlife women (1234 observations) from the Study of Women's Health Across the Nation HDL ancillary study. Joint models were applied to examine associations of HDL metrics assessed at midlife (50.2 ±2.9 years, baseline of the current study) and their changes over midlife (6.1 ±3.9 years of duration) with subsequent cognitive performance [working memory (Digit Span Backward Test), processing speed (Symbol Digit Modalities Test), and episodic memory immediate and delayed recall (East Boston memory test)] assessed repeatedly (maximum 5 times) 1.5 ±1 years later over 7.72 ± 4.10 years of follow up. Higher total HDL-P and smaller HDL size at midlife were associated with a better subsequent immediate recall, delayed recall and/or processing speed. Greater increase in HDL-PL, apoA-1, medium HDL-P, and total HDL-P and less increase in HDL size over midlife were associated with a better subsequent immediate and/or delayed recall. Enhancing specific serum HDL metrics during midlife could be promising in cognitive restoration, particularly memory, the initial and predominant symptom of Alzheimer's disease.

The effects of multitalker babble noise on children's cognitive performance

Classroom noise, particularly irrelevant speech or background babble noise, can have detrimental effects on academic tasks and learning more generally. Researchers have proposed two alternative explanations of the interference of babble noise on non-auditory academic tasks, such as reading or math: i) Babble noise may generate interference on these tasks due to the automatic access of speech sounds (babbling) to phonological short-term memory; or ii) by capturing children's attention, thereby diverting general attentional resources from the task. To test these hypotheses, we asked 3rd to 5th graders to perform two visual attention and two verbal working memory tasks (digit span and reading span) in both quiet and noisy conditions. Multitalker babble noise was administered through headphones at 65dB. The results revealed significant noise effects only in the most complex verbal working memory task (reading span). Interestingly, a significant difference between conditions was also observed in one of the visual attention tasks, where higher scores were, however, achieved in the presence of noise. These preliminary findings will be discussed in light of the current literature.

Eye-tracking training improves visuospatial working memory of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder.

Given the close connection between eye movement and frontal lobe functions and some evidence supporting the effect of eye-tracking training on enhancing cognitive performance mediated by the frontal lobe, this study aimed to explore if after-school eye-tracking training can improve the visuospatial working memory (VSWM) and cognitive flexibility performance in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This study is a non-randomized cluster trial. Forty children from eight primary schools were selected, half receiving eye-tracking training for 20 sessions over 9 months, while the other half served as a waitlist control. They were matched on demographic characteristics and baseline cognitive performance. Their VSWM and cognitive flexibility were assessed at the beginning and end of the study. Results showed that children who received eye-tracking training, but not those on a waitlist, exhibited significant improvements in the total score and working memory span of the VSWM tests, and the correct responses in cognitive flexibility tests. Specifically, VSWM performance at higher span levels (5 or above) yielded a greater improvement. The findings suggest that eye-tracking training can be a feasible and effective after-school program for improving working memory and cognitive flexibility performance in children with ADHD and ASD. This study was prospectively registered at ClinicalTrials.gov (https://clinicaltrials.gov/, trial number: NCT05428657).

Davunetide sex-dependently boosts memory in prodromal Alzheimer’s disease

BackgroundThe tauopathy inhibitor, davunetide shows sex-dependent efficacy in women suffering from progressive supranuclear palsy. Extending these findings to prodromal Alzheimer’s disease, we submitted a double-blind, placebo-controlled, 12 weeks/16 weeks follow-up, davunetide clinical trial results in amnestic mild cognitive impairment (ClinicalTrials.gov ID NCT00422981), to a sex-dependent analysis.MethodsOne hundred forty-four individuals, separated into eight groups (1:2 placebo—and 2 doses, 5 mg davunetide/daily or 15 mg davunetide/twice-daily, with matching placebo intranasal volumes), were evaluated.ResultsSignificant dose-dependent cognitive increases were observed in men compared to women with a test of delayed (12 ss) visual matching to the sample. In a test of semantic working memory and attention (digit span), women showed a significant low-dose placebo effect, ensuing in a high dose significant davunetide improvement, over the matched placebo. Correlating anxiety with cognition showed sex-opposing results, with women depicting significant anxiety correlations with delayed matching to sample.DiscussionIn conclusion, sex-specific prodromal Alzheimer’s drug development is encouraged, with davunetide playing a lead initiative role.

Analysis of the status quo and clinical influencing factors of the social cognitive impairment in deficit schizophrenia.

Due to the high heterogeneity of schizophrenia, the factors influencing social cognitive impairment are controversial. The purpose of this study was to investigate the social cognitive dysfunction of deficit schizophrenia (DS), and to explore its clinical impact on the clinical characteristics and neurocognitive function assessment results. This study involved 100 DS patients, 100 non-deficit schizophrenia (NDS) patients, and 100 healthy controls (HC). Social cognitive functions were assessed using the Eye Complex Emotion Discrimination Task (ECEDT), Game of Dice Task (GDT), and Iowa Gambling Task (IGT), while neurocognitive functions were examined using the Clock Drawing Task (CDT), the Verbal Fluency Task (VFT), Digit Span Test (DST), Stroop Color-word Test (SCWT), and Trail Making Test (TMT). We analyzed the differences in cognitive function among the three groups of patients and the correlation between cognitive function assessment results and Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) scores. Comparison of neurocognitive functions among the three groups through CDT, VFT, DST, SCWT, and TMT revealed that in the values of these tests in the DS group differed significantly from those of the NDS and HC groups. However, the DSB of the NDS group was lower and the TMT results were significantly higher than those of the HC group. In the DS group, ECEDT emotion recognition was positively correlated with stroop colors and stroop interference; the score of gender recognition was positively correlated with VFT, DSF, and SCWT, and TMT-B; the total time spent was positively correlated with TMT; The GDT risky option was negatively correlated with VFT, DST, stroop word, and stroop interference; the negative feedback utilization was negatively correlated with PANSS-Negative; TMT was positively correlated with VFT; IGT was positively correlated with CDT, VFT, DST, and SCWT, but it was negatively correlated with PANSS-Negative and TMT, with statistically significant. There are significant social cognitive impairments in the perception of social information, judgment and resolution of social problems in deficit schizophrenia, which are closely related to negative symptoms and multidimensional neurocognitive dysfunction such as attention, learning, memory, brain information processing speed, cognitive flexibility, and functional executive power.

Effect of tDCS combined with virtual reality for post-stroke cognitive impairment: a randomized controlled trial study protocol

BackgroundPost-stroke cognitive impairment (PSCI) not only increases patient mortality and disability, but also adversely affects motor function and the ability to perform routine daily activities. Current therapeutic approaches for, PSCI lack specificity, primarily relying on and medication and traditional cognitive therapy supplemented by a limited array of tools. Both transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) and virtual reality (VR) training have demonstrated efficacy in improving cognitive performance among PSCI patients. Previous findings across various conditions suggest that implementing a therapeutic protocol combining tDCS and VR (tDCS - VR) may yield superior in isolation. Despite this, to our knowledge, no clinical investigation combining tDCS and VR for PSCI rehabilitation has been conducted. Thus, the purpose of this study is to explore the effects of tDCS - VR on PSCI rehabilitation.MethodsThis 4-week, single-center randomized clinical trial protocol will recruit 200 patients who were randomly assigned to one of four groups: Group A (tDCS + VR), Group B (tDCS + sham VR), Group C (sham tDCS + VR), Group D (sham tDCS + sham VR). All four groups will receive conventional cognitive rehabilitation training. The primary outcome measurement utilizes the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). Secondary outcome measures include the Montreal Cognitive Assessment, Frontal Assessment Battery, Clock Drawing Test, Digital Span Test, Logic Memory Test, and Modified Barthel Index. Additionally, S-YYZ-01 apparatus for diagnosis and treating language disorders assesses subjects’ speech function. Pre- and post-four-week intervention assessments are conducted for all outcome measures. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is employed to observe changes in oxygenated hemoglobin (HbO), deoxy-hemoglobin (HbR), and total hemoglobin (HbT) in the cerebral cortex.DiscussionOur hypothesis posits that the tDCS - VR therapy, in opposed to individual tDCS or VR interventions, could enhance cognitive function, speech ability and daily living skills in PSCI patients while concurrently augmenting frontal cortical activity. This randomized study aims to provide a robust theoretical foundation supported by scientific evidence for the practical implementation of the tDCS - VR combination as a secure and efficient PSCI rehabilitation approach.Trial registrationChictr.org.cn Identifier: ChiCTR2300070580. Registered on 17th April 2023.

Cognitively engaging exercise predicts executive functioning on laboratory tasks

The cognitive engagement hypothesis claims that regular exercise must be cognitively engaging in order to benefit executive functioning. However, the available evidence for this hypothesis is circumstantial. Here we test it directly in two studies. In Study 1, 145 young adults first reported the extent to which their primary exercise and non-exercise leisure activities were cognitively engaging. They then completed two well-known laboratory tasks measuring executive function: a flanker task to index inhibitory control and a backward digit span task to assess working memory. Structural equation modeling revealed that when participants reported that their exercise relied on inhibitory cognitive control, they performed better on the flanker task, and, when their exercise demanded cognitive flexibility, they performed better on a backward digit task. These relationships did not hold for their primary reported leisure activity. Study 2 confirmed this finding with an independent sample of 227 undergraduates and two different executive function tasks: a stop-signal task to index inhibitory control and a trail making B task to assess cognitive flexibility. When participants reported that their regular exercise relied on inhibitory control they had faster stop-signal reaction times and made fewer trail making errors, and, when their exercise relied on cognitive flexibility, they had slower stop-signal reaction times and longer trail making B completion times. These relationships were again not found for participants’ leisure activities. These findings support the claim that exercise is associated with cognitive performance on laboratory tasks, provided the exercise is itself cognitively demanding.

Predicting the effectiveness of binaural beats on working memory.

Working memory is vital for short-term information processing. Binaural beats can enhance working memory by improving attention and memory consolidation through neural synchronization. However, individual differences in cognitive and neuronal functioning affect effectiveness of binaural beats, necessitating personalized approaches. This study aimed to develop a machine learning model to predict binaural beats's effectiveness on working memory using electroencephalography. Sixty healthy participants underwent a 5-min electroencephalography recording, an initial working memory evaluation, 15 min of binaural beats stimulation, and a subsequent working memory evaluation using digit span tests of increasing difficulty. Recall accuracy and response times were measured. Differential scores from pre-evaluation and post-evaluation labeled participants as active or inactive to binaural beats stimulation. electroencephalography data, recorded using 14 electrodes, provided brain activity estimates across theta, alpha, beta, and gamma frequency bands, resulting in 56 features (14 channels × 4 bands) for the machine learning model. Several classifiers were tested to identify the most effective model. The weighted K-nearest neighbors model achieved the highest accuracy (90.0%) and area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (92.24%). Frontal and parietal electroencephalography channels in theta and alpha bands were crucial for classification. This study's findings offer significant clinical insights, enabling informed interventions and preventing resource inefficiency.

Aging Processes of Working Memory in Different Modalities.

Background: Working memory (WM) involves temporarily storing and manipulating information. Research on the impact of aging on WM has shown inconsistent results regarding the decline in visual and verbal WM, with a lack of studies on tactile WM. This study aimed to assess the effects of aging on WM across verbal, visuospatial, and tactile modalities using span tasks of forward (storage) and backward (manipulation) stages. Methods: A total of 130 participants, divided into four age groups of 20-29, 60-69, 70-79, and 80-89, completed the Digit, Visuospatial, and Tactual Spans. Performance was analyzed using a 3 (Task) × 4 (Group) × 2 (Stage) mixed design repeated measures ANOVA. Results: The analysis revealed significant main effects for modality (p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.15), age (p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.48), and stage (p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.30). Digit Span outperformed the other modalities, while Tactual Span showed the worst performance. Additionally, task performance declined with age, and the forward stage was superior to the backward stage. Interaction effects indicated that Digit Span was less affected by aging compared to the Visuospatial and Tactual Spans (p = 0.004, ηp2 = 0.07). Post hoc analyses further revealed that the Digit Span consistently outperformed the other modalities in both stages, with more pronounced differences observed in the forward stage. Conclusions: Verbal WM is more resilient to aging compared to the other modalities while tactile WM declines with age in a manner similar to verbal and visuospatial WM, suggesting a modality-specific impact of aging on WM.