Reading Memory Research Articles

The relationship between paired associate learning and Chinese word reading in kindergarten children

BackgroundResearch has shown that paired associate learning (PAL) plays an important role in children's word reading across different languages. However, little is known about the construct of PAL and its relationship with word reading in Chinese children.MethodsA total of 204 second‐year kindergarten children from Mainland China were assessed on measures of PAL, including the four mapping conditions of PAL: visual–verbal, verbal–verbal, visual–visual and verbal–visual PAL. Tasks of working memory (WM), inhibitory control, visual‐motor integration (VMI), phonological awareness, orthographic knowledge and Chinese word reading were also administered to these children.ResultsOur results showed that WM, VMI and phonological awareness were unique predictors of PAL, whereas inhibitory control and orthographic knowledge were not. Furthermore, PAL showed an independent contribution to Chinese word reading after controlling for phonological awareness and orthographic knowledge. The mediation analysis showed that PAL was a significant mediator of the association between different cognitive‐linguistic skills and Chinese word reading.ConclusionPaired associate learning contributes to Chinese word reading over and above phonological awareness and orthographic knowledge. Findings underscore the potential importance of PAL, as distinct from other cognitive‐linguistic skills, for understanding variability in early reading development.

Investigating Digital Reading in L2 to Criticize and to Summarize: Working Memory Capacity and Reading Purpose Influencing Strategy

The construction of meaning and inference generation considering low- and high- working memory span when readers read digital texts in L2 to criticize and to summarize were examined. Data collection included Reading Span Test, verbal protocol and post-reading tasks. The low-span group showed more misunderstandings in both purposes and a significant result of moderate correlation between reading time and reading to summarize. Both groups made more metacognitive comments when reading hypertexts to summarize and found strategies to cope with the demands of the nonlinear hypertext.

The Cognitive Element Model of Reading Instruction

ABSTRACTThe science of reading emphasizes explicit skills‐based reading instruction to support students’ reading acquisition. Yet, despite ample evidence of support, some students do not respond to such instruction adequately. To characterize why some students are not responsive to evidence‐based reading instruction and to inform the development of novel instructional approaches for improving responsiveness, cross‐disciplinary perspectives on cognitive and academic development are important. Based on the cognitive–academic bidirectional theory, on cognitive training transfer theory, and on various working memory–reading models, the authors propose a cognitive element model of reading instruction that provides a novel framework for considering how to embed supports for cognitive processes within evidence‐based reading instruction. Specifically, the element model emphasizes building reading fluency and comprehension/knowledge with explicit instruction. Working memory should not be considered a domain‐general construct in working memory training that aims to produce far‐transfer effects on reading outcomes. Instead of looking for far‐transfer effects, we should make outcomes (i.e., reading) near‐transfer tasks such that working memory training should be domain (material) specific, task paradigm specific, and strategy specific and assimilated within existing skill‐based reading activities. The authors review intervention studies with rigorous methodology and show promising effects of this framework. With the element model, the authors provide a foundation for considering how one can use extant knowledge of evidence‐based reading instruction together with knowledge of related skills in other domains (e.g., cognitive psychology) to maximize the efficacy of reading instruction for all students.

A-249 Evidence for Frontal Lobe Involvement in the Visual Processing Streams

Abstract Objective Extant literature supports the “Two-Stream Hypothesis” of visual processing including a ventral stream (connecting the occipital lobe to the temporal lobe) and a dorsal stream (connecting the occipital lobe to the parietal lobe), but is not traditionally believed to involve the frontal lobe. Method “Eddie”, a healthy 14-year-old male, sustained a penetrating brain injury by accidentally lodging a pool cue through his right orbital bones and piercing his right frontal lobe through to the skull. He was ambulatory, awake, and alert on arrival to the ED, with a laceration, swelling, and bleeding of the eyelid. A cranial CT revealed a complex orbital roof fracture, injury to the orbit, and right frontal contusions. Eddie underwent a right supraorbital craniotomy with repair of the orbital roof fracture and debridement of bony fragments. Post-operative MRI revealed right frontal parenchymal edema and patchy areas of contusion. Results Neuropsychological evaluation revealed a robust cognitive reserve including verbal skills, working memory, processing speed, and word reading skills in the high average. Eddie demonstrated significant discrepancies in visually mediated skills including relatively weaker visual–spatial skills (24 standard score (SS) points lower than verbal skills), fluid reasoning with visual problem-solving (30 SS points lower than verbal skills), low average judgment of line orientation, and a discrepancy between verbal and visual memory. He also demonstrated mild difficulties consistent with his right orbito-frontal injury including weaknesses regarding impulsivity, self-monitoring, planning, and task approach. Conclusions The current case demonstrates possible involvement of the frontal lobe in the visual processing pathways.

A jornada do herói no livro ilustrado contemporâneo: análise da obra O Passeio, de Pablo Lugones e Alexandre Rampazo

Na contemporaneidade, o letramento de imagens tem se mostrado necessário visto que elas ocupam espaço em todos os meios de comunicação. No entanto, muitas vezes, a leitura de livros, cujas ilustrações possuem pregnância estética, a qual fomenta a constituição da memória afetiva do leitor e alfabetiza seu olhar desde a infância, não faz parte da formação de leitores em âmbito escolar. Nesses livros, a materialidade, as cores nas ilustrações, o formato, o fundo das páginas, a composição dos elementos, a tipografia, entre outros elementos, estão a serviço da história. Neles, tudo conta em amplo sentido (GONZÁLEZ, 2017), por isso têm se revelado verdadeiros objetos de arte que merecem reflexões quanto ao seu potencial para a formação do leitor estético (ECO, 2003). Dessa forma, o presente artigo, objetiva analisar a obra O Passeio (LUGONES, 2017), tendo como aporte teórico a Estética da Recepção (JAUSS, 1994; ISER, 1996, 1999). Esse livro, escrito por Pablo Lugones e ricamente ilustrado por Alexandre Rampazo (2017), aborda a temática da viagem sob a forma de um passeio existencial que, desfrutado por pai e filha mesmo quando um deles se encontra em trilha diversa, conduz à compreensão dos ciclos naturais da vida. Sua história, por apresentar protagonistas em devir que obtêm conhecimentos ao longo da jornada, dialoga com o Bildungsroman. Ao acompanhar esses aventureiros, o leitor em formação empreende uma trajetória ao lado deles, em especial, na direção de si mesmo. Ao término dessa viagem literária, esse leitor reencontra-se com o mundo e sente-se transformado, pela percepção de que a vida prossegue na jornada das próximas gerações que conferem continuidade à existência.

Investigating of Reading, Vocabulary Knowledge and Verbal Memory Performances of Students with Learning Disabilities

Bu arastirmanin amaci ogrenme guclugu olan ve olmayan ilkokul ucuncu sinif ogrencilerinin okudugunu anlama, sozcuk bilgisi ve sozel calisma bellegi performanslarinin (edimlerinin) karsilastirilmali olarak incelenmesidir. Bu amacla calismada karsilastirmali betimsel arastirma modeli kullanilmistir. Arastirmanin katilimcilarini ilkokul ucuncu sinifa devam eden ve ogrenme guclugu tanisi olan 22 ve tipik gelisim gosteren 22 olmak uzere toplam 44 ogrenci olusturmaktadir. Okumaya iliskin verilerin toplanmasi icin sinif duzeyine uygun bir oykuleyici metin ve okudugunu anlama sorulari, Turkce Okul Cagi Dil Gelisimi Testi’nin sozcuk bilgisi alt testleri ile Calisma Bellegi Olcegi’nin sozel kisa sureli bellek ve sozel calisma bellegi alt testleri kullanilmistir. Gruplar arasi farklilasmalara iliskin etki buyuklukleri hesaplanmis ve her iki grup icin de degiskenler arasi iliskiler incelenmistir. Sonuclar ogrenme guclugu olan ogrencilerin okudugunu anlama, okuma hizi, sozcuk bilgisi ve sozel calisma bellegi degerlendirmelerinde tipik gelisim gosteren akranlarindan anlamli bir sekilde basarisiz oldugunu gostermistir. Her iki grupta da degiskenler arasinda anlamli iliskiler bulunmustur. Calismanin bulgulari alanyazindaki bilgiler isiginda tartisilmistir.

A meta-analysis of the relationship between working memory and second language reading comprehension: Does task type matter?

AbstractDespite the increasing attention paid to the role of working memory in reading, findings and measurement of working memory have been inconsistent. The current meta-analysis aims to provide a quantitative description of the overall relationship between second language (L2) reading comprehension and working memory measured through reading span task and identify methodological features that moderate this relationship. Following a comprehensive search, 25 primary studies (23 peer-reviewed studies and 2 dissertations) were included comprising 37 unique samples (N = 2,682), all of which were coded for substantive and methodological features. The results showed that (a) there is a moderate relationship between L2 reading comprehension and working memory (r = .30), (b) reading span task features such as the scoring procedure, task language, and final word recall order moderate this relationship, and (c) the degree to which working memory’s involvement in L2 reading comprehension may vary depending on the type of reading tasks at hand. Implications are discussed in terms of conceptualization and measurement of working memory. Future directions are also offered in relation to measurement practices to encourage consistency and to improve our understanding of the link between working memory and L2 reading comprehension.

What’s the best way to characterize the relationship between working memory and achievement?: An initial examination of competing theories.

Although studies have demonstrated a relationship between working memory and achievement in math and reading, it is still unclear why working memory might be related to these abilities. In the present article, we examined the viability of several possible theories in 2 separate analyses of math and reading. In each case, we contrasted the predictions of a cognitive filter model, a transactional model, and a positive manifold model using data from the 2011 Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten (ECLS-K). Results of path analyses in a structural equation modeling (SEM) framework indicated an excellent fit for the transactional model, while a poor fit was shown for the other 2 models for both math and reading. Findings across these analyses suggested that working memory and achievement interact in a reciprocal, recursive manner over time. Findings are discussed in terms of their implications for theory, practice, and future research. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved)

STAGING FAILURE? BERTA LASK'S THOMAS MÜNZER (1925) AND THE 400TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE GERMAN PEASANTS’ WAR

ABSTRACTThis article examines Berta Lask's drama Thomas Münzer (1925), which was commissioned by the Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands (KPD) and staged in Eisleben to mark the 400th anniversary of the German Peasants’ War (1524–5) and the execution of Thomas Müntzer. Drawing on cultural memory theory and reading the play as a multi‐layered lieu de mémoire, it argues that Lask attempts to recuperate the revolutionary potential of the failed Peasants’ War and harness it to the agenda of the KPD of the 1920s. The article begins by situating Lask's play in a tradition of leftist writing about the Peasants’ War dating back to the mid‐nineteenth century. It then considers the ways in which Lask uses historical analogy to create connections between the sixteenth‐century uprising and events in post‐World War I German political history. Finally, the article explores the techniques used by Lask to create a sense of revolutionary community among her actors and audience.

Current Socioeconomic Status Correlates With Brain Volumes in Healthy Children and Adolescents but Not in Children With Prenatal Alcohol Exposure

Individuals with prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) exhibit neurological deficits associated with brain injury including smaller brain volumes. Additional risk factors such as lower socioeconomic status (SES) may also have an impact on brain development for this population. This study examined how brain volumes are related to SES in both neurotypically developing children and adolescents, and those with PAE. 3D T1-weighted MPRAGE images were acquired from 69 participants with PAE (13.0 ± 3.2 years, range 7.1–18.8 years, 49% female) and 70 neurotypical controls (12.4 ± 2.9 years, range 7.0–18.5 years, 60% female) from four scanning sites in Canada. SES scores calculated using Hollingshead’s Four-Factor Index of Social Status from current caregiver placement were not significantly different between groups, though more children with PAE had lower SES scores compared to controls. Psychometric data comprised 14 cognitive measures, including executive functioning, attention and working memory, memory, math/numerical ability, and word reading. All cognitive scores were significantly worse in children with PAE compared to controls, though SES was not correlated with cognitive scores in either group after correction for multiple comparisons. All 13 brain volumes were smaller in children with PAE compared to children in the control group. Higher SES was associated with larger hippocampus and amygdala volumes in controls, but there were no such associations in children with PAE. Direct evaluation of the interaction between SES and diagnostic group did not show a significant differential impact of SES on these structures. These findings support previous links between SES and brain volumes in neurotypically developing children, but the lack of such a relationship with SES in children with PAE may be due to the markedly smaller brain volumes resulting from the initial brain injury and postpartum brain development, regardless of later SES.

Libros Para Pueblos: An Exploratory Case Study

This article is the result of an introductory two-year case study project that investigated community libraries supported by the not-for-profit organization Libros Para Pueblos (LPP) in the state of Oaxaca, Mexico. Libros Para Pueblos (LPP) is a largely volunteer-run library organization based in the capital city of Oaxaca de Juarez. In order to analyse the work of LPP we used Mostert & Vermeulen's (1998) nine areas for evaluation of community libraries. Over the past 20 years, the number of libraries the organization supports has grown from two to more than 70 throughout the state. The work that has facilitated this growth is carried out by a small Mexican staff, along with an Executive Committee and a Board of Directors made up of Americans and Canadians living in Mexico. The work is both time consuming and demanding, but it is fuelled by a positive reading ideology that is a result of memories of childhood reading. This motivation is shared by a network of 11 Mexican Regional Volunteer Coordinators who train and support local library workers. The local workers are often doing their tequio, which is a social requirement of working for one or two years in public service. We argue that the success of LPP libraries is influenced by: 1) an organizational structure that mandates Mexican leadership at the Executive level and in paid staff positions; 2) initiation from local representative; 3) the unique and complex socialist community configurations of the Oaxacan region; 4) a community of retirees who volunteer at many levels; and 5) national and international donations.

Reading and Non-word Repetition Skills in Bilingual Developmental Dyslexia: The Case of a Greek - Italian Bilingual Dyslexic Adult

Studies of bilinguals with developmental dyslexia learning to read in two alphabetic orthographies have shown that they demonstrate similar reading and phonological short-term memory (STM) deficits in both their languages. The present study aimed at exploring whether dyslexia in adults affects similarly decoding skills in two transparent languages, Greek and Italian, whether there are similar deficits in phonological STM and whether the dominance of one of the two languages affects the manifestation of the deficits. We compared the performance of a young Greek-Italian bilingual dyslexic adult (exposed to Italian from birth, L1: Greek) to that of a young monolingual Greek dyslexic adult, a young Greek-Italian typically developing (TD) bilingual adult (exposed to Italian from birth, L1: Greek) and a young Greek monolingual TD adult. We assessed them in word and non-word reading and non-word repetition. Results showed that bilingual dyslexic adult performed significantly poorer than the bilingual TD adult on all tasks in both languages, suggesting that dyslexia affects similarly decoding and phonological STM across languages. On reading, bilingual outperformed monolingual dyslexic, while monolingual outperformed bilingual TD adult. On phonological STM, both bilinguals outperformed monolinguals. A positive effect of bilingualism was found for reading skills only for dyslexics, while it was found for phonological STM for both dyslexic and TD adults. Finally, the dominance of L1 affected bilinguals' performance in reading but not in non-word repetition, where they showed better performance in Italian, perhaps due to the phonotactic complexity of the Greek orthography compared to Italian.

Executive functioning and word reading in Hong Kong Chinese children: A 1‐year longitudinal perspective

This study examined the bidirectionality between kindergarten children's executive functioning (EF) and word reading across two time points. Participants were 523 Hong Kong Chinese‐speaking children (mean age at Time 2 = 64.59 months; 52.9% male) and their parents. At Time 1, children were administered the measures of EF skills: inhibitory control, attention shifting, working memory and Chinese word reading. They were reassessed with these measures at Time 2 one year later. Results from the cross‐lagged panel model revealed that, controlling for child age, gender and parental education levels, children's word reading at Time 1 was significantly predictive of their working memory at Time 2, but that the three EF skills at Time 1 were not predictive of word reading at Time 2. These findings underscored the role of early word reading in promoting children's working memory.

Neural memory plasticity for medical anomaly detection

In the domain of machine learning, Neural Memory Networks (NMNs) have recently achieved impressive results in a variety of application areas including visual question answering, trajectory prediction, object tracking, and language modelling. However, we observe that the attention based knowledge retrieval mechanisms used in current NMNs restrict them from achieving their full potential as the attention process retrieves information based on a set of static connection weights. This is suboptimal in a setting where there are vast differences among samples in the data domain; such as anomaly detection where there is no consistent criteria for what constitutes an anomaly. In this paper, we propose a plastic neural memory access mechanism which exploits both static and dynamic connection weights in the memory read, write and output generation procedures. We demonstrate the effectiveness and flexibility of the proposed memory model in three challenging anomaly detection tasks in the medical domain: abnormal EEG identification, MRI tumour type classification and schizophrenia risk detection in children. In all settings, the proposed approach outperforms the current state-of-the-art. Furthermore, we perform an in-depth analysis demonstrating the utility of neural plasticity for the knowledge retrieval process and provide evidence on how the proposed memory model generates sparse yet informative memory outputs.

Are the acuities of magnitude representations of different types and ranges of numbers related? Testing the core assumption of the integrated theory of numerical development

The current study tested whether the magnitude representation acuities of different types and ranges of numbers, as proposed in the integrated theory of numerical development (Siegler, 2016), are significantly related to each other. A sample of 123 kindergarteners was assessed four times over the period from kindergarten to fourth grade on magnitude representation acuities of different types and ranges of numbers (nonsymbolic numerical magnitude in kindergarten, small whole-number magnitude in grade 1, large whole-number magnitude in grade 2, rational number magnitude in grade 4). The children were also evaluated for their mathematics achievement, intelligence, working memory capacity, reading skills, attention level, and multiplication skills. The results showed that the magnitude representation acuities of different types and ranges of numbers were significantly related to each other, and these numerical magnitude representation acuities were either directly or indirectly related to children’s mathematics achievement in grade 4. The findings from this work provide empirical support to the core assumption of the integrated theory of numerical development and highlight the significance of numerical magnitude representations at an early developmental stage to the acquisition of more advanced numerical magnitude representations in later elementary school years.

Reading As a Democratic Value and Resource for the Formation of the Communicative and Cultural Memory of a Nation

The article actualizes the humanitarian aspect of the problem of preserving text reading in a new technological environment as a number of specific institutionalized and communicative practices. This phenomenon as one of the fundamental subsystems of culture, based on the results of sociological research, is considered in the context of the implementation of value, training and educational functions. Reading is not merely a process of consumption of a certain kind of information, it is not just a technology of interiorization of texts and an essential resource of communicative and cultural memory, but also a factor that largely determines the general and historical culture of a generation, and as a result, the cost of the products materialized by it, left to descendants. The highlighted intergenerational contradictions/gaps, as proved, show that reading in the era of post-literacy should be the most important resource for the formation and development of the communicative and cultural memory of the Russian nation.
 Keywords: reading, culture, post-literacy, communication, mass media, education, sense creation, communicative and cultural memory

Domain‐General Learning and Memory Substrates of Reading Acquisition

ABSTRACTPrior research has demonstrated that linguistic skills and knowledge contribute to successful reading acquisition. In contrast, little is known about the influence of domain‐general learning abilities on reading. To investigate associations between general memory functions and reading during the early stages of learning to read, performance measures of word‐level reading and of declarative and procedural learning were obtained in a cohort of 140 children, annually during their first 4 years of school. We hypothesized that differences in learning task performance would relate to reading ability in the early years, when children are first learning to read. We employed a series of linear mixed effects models to test the relationships between learning abilities and reading across time. Declarative learning performance predicted reading ability in first grade, while procedural learning performance predicted reading ability in second grade. Our findings suggest that reading acquisition may depend in part on general capacities for learning.

When Fiction Feels Real: Representation and the Reading Mind by Elaine Auyoung

Reviewed by: When Fiction Feels Real: Representation and the Reading Mind by Elaine Auyoung Elizabeth Brogden AUYOUNG, ELAINE. When Fiction Feels Real: Representation and the Reading Mind. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018. 176 pages. $74.00 hardcover. Elaine Auyoung's first book, When Fiction Feels Real: Representation and the Reading Mind, is one of the latest stars in a constellation of work on fictional ontology and character studies that has been glowing steadily brighter since the early aughts. Her contribution to novel theory and to the epistemology of nineteenth-century realism is both generous and timely, as literary scholars have become increasingly engaged with problems as complex as they are fundamental: what techniques do novels use to interpellate their readers or to construct interiority on the page? How do they negotiate between various scales of representation and temporality, privileging both the grandiose and the minute, the historical event and the private sentiment? To what ends does realism harness other genres, and what can the experience of reading it tell us about the architecture of our minds (or vice versa)? Auyoung's commitment to parsing the apparent effortlessness of novelistic realism is vital as we enter the third decade of a millennium in which the popular consumption of reality-adjacent content is more likely to take place online, onscreen, or in the virtual realm than on the printed page. Projects like hers are an essential reminder that we cannot take the novel for granted, even as we need not be defeated by the specter of its obsolescence. Auyoung begins by venturing beyond the boundaries of Victorianism to look closely at realism's invitation to behold what is otherwise defined by empirical absence. Through lavish description, realist novels place entire worlds "at [readers'] fingertips" (23), and it is precisely their quasi-touchability, Auyoung argues, that makes them so vivid. Writers such as Tolstoy enlist our "embodied knowledge" (32) to situate readers within immaterial ambits, and Auyoung scrutinizes instances of handling in Anna Karenina—struggling with a shirt button or seizing a "small physical object" (24)—to demonstrate the extent to which our insight into realist phenomenology is impoverished by ignoring its haptic quality. Such scenes of manual dexterity or frustration might be easily overlooked, but in Auyoung's account they have the highest stakes: when prompted to "retrieve rudimentary forms of motor memory" (33), readers are rewarded with an "experience of fluency" and "mastery" that constitutes realism's principal "aesthetic payoff" (33). In her second chapter, Auyoung continues to examine the "fluency" (32) that realism cultivates, shifting her focus to character, whose importance and validity as an object of serious study is currently being recovered after decades of critical dismissal. How do readers come to "know" imaginary beings? How does an assemblage of inert [End Page 215] glyphs on paper come "alive"? In fine close readings of passages from Jane Austen's oeuvre, Auyoung shows us that repetition and typological consistency (flatness, in other words) underpins the impression of roundness: predictability and regularity facilitate the emergence of a "situation model" (5) rooted in a few behavioral tics and core personality traits, with which the reader develops a sense of intimacy. Roundness thus resides in flatness, and the most fleshed out characters are often the most elusive. Protagonists, despite being generally thought to possess greater solidity and depth than their satellites, are actually more evanescent than minor or stock characters, who—precisely because their behavior is anticipable—are endowed with proleptic potential. In her third chapter, Auyoung discusses the role that hyponymy—defined by linguists as "the basic semantic relationship between a general category" (64) and its subordinate parts—plays in realist aesthetics. In Bleak House, she argues, Dickens utilizes excessive detail in a deliberate attempt to overwhelm the natural limitations of the reader's memory. Rather than bearing a metonymic significance greater than themselves, things are made to proliferate in a deliberate effort to surpass the reader's powers of recall and prevent her from adopting an interpretive stance toward them. Auyoung makes a persuasive case for the ways in which realism promotes surface reading over hermeneutics: far from cultivating (hyper-)attunement to the potential meanings of any individual object, it forces...

Writing and Reading Memories at a Buenos Aires Memorial Site: The Ex-ESMA

Writing and Reading Memories at a Buenos Aires Memorial Site: The Ex-ESMA

Graphic Memories of the Civil Rights Movement by Jorge J. Santos

Reviewed by: Graphic Memories of the Civil Rights Movement by Jorge J. Santos Joanna Davis-McElligatt (bio) Jorge J. Santos, Jr. Graphic Memories of the Civil Rights Movement. University of Texas Press, 2019. 256 pp, $90, $29.95. Jorge J. Santos, Jr.'s Graphic Memories of the Civil Rights Movement: Reframing History in Comics is a compelling exploration of graphic novels and memoirs published since the mid-1990s that document the civil rights movement from the mid-1950s to the late 1960s. Graphic narratives, Santos explains, can reframe long-established histories of the movement by highlighting habitually overlooked people, places, and narratives central to its successes. In this way, graphic texts representing the classical period of civil rights history have the power to expand and reshape readerly (mis)conceptions of the movement's legacies. Of particular interest to Santos is the way graphic narratives resist simple representations of historical figures and events, such as Martin Luther King, Jr. or the Selma to Montgomery marches. In doing so, graphic histories can challenge our understanding of the subjects and moments that have become preserved in our collective memories of the movement. Most important are the ways these "civil rights graphic memories" encourage readers to think critically about the movement's historical archive by calling into question [End Page 237] what forms of evidence—Santos discusses primarily photographs and film—we accept as truthful or accurate portrayals of the movement (3). Reinforced for the public by monuments, street signage, and national holidays, the invocation of memories of the civil rights movement is always a political act. Careful reading of civil rights graphic memories, however, can push back against our "consensus memory" of the movement, a term defined by Renee C. Romano and Leigh Raiford and deployed by Santos in reference to the received state-sanctioned narratives evoked in popular memory which are thus widely subject to revision and appropriation in graphic narratives (4). Through an expansion of the visual and textual narratives that underpin consensus memories of the civil rights movement, Graphic Memories demonstrates how comics can be fruitful in reenvisioning the history of civil rights in various ways. In addition to an introduction and appendix featuring an interview with Ho Che Anderson, Graphic Memories includes five chapters and a chapter-length epilogue which are thematically linked. Though the chapters and the epilogue cover unique intellectual terrain, the throughline Santos draws throughout the monograph is the way each graphic text troubles or reinforces consensus memories of the movement. The first two chapters detail how Ho Che Anderson's King: A Comics Biography and John Lewis, Andrew Aydin, and Nate Powell's March trilogy, respectively, deliberately challenge consensus memories of iconic King-centered civil rights narratives. Anderson's King resists the figuration of an iconic MLK and defies simple categorizations of his legacy by constructing a narrative out of a complex bricolage of comics styles, photographs, and imagined dialogues which highlight King's essential unknowability. Lewis, Aydin, and Powell, conversely, elide the iconic King by troubling the relationship between the past and present through the use of panel bleeds, which encourage readers to conceive of history of the movement as ongoing rather than past. Chapters three and four explore how Lila Quintero Weaver's Darkroom: A Memoir in Black and White and Mark Long, Jim Demonakos, and Nate Powell's The Silence of Our Friends engage with perspectives beyond those typically associated with the consensus memory of the movement. Santos claims that, as a Latinx woman, Weaver provides readers with an alternate perception of the movement beyond the black-white binary, whereas Long, Demonakos, and Powell's Houston-based graphic narrative shifts reader's consensus memory to an unconventional civil rights southscape. The final chapter and epilogue take up Howard Cruse's Stuck Rubber Baby and a number of different series runs of Marvel's X-Men. Despite the fact that Cruse's examination of intersecting anti-gay and antiblack sentiments in the civil rights South challenges master narrative consensus memories, Santos argues that the lynching of the white gay activist Sammy Noone whitewashes and appropriates the movement's history. In his high-spirited and deeply personal epilogue, however, Santos suggests that X-Men...