Memory Encoding Research Articles

Decoding EEG for optimizing naturalistic memory

Background:Spectral features of human electroencephalographic (EEG) recordings during learning predict subsequent recall variability. New method:Capitalizing on these fluctuating neural features, we develop a non-invasive closed-loop (NICL) system for real-time optimization of human learning. Participants play a virtual navigation-and-memory game; recording multi-session data across days allowed us to build participant-specific classification models of recall success. In subsequent closed-loop sessions, our platform manipulated the timing of memory encoding, selectively presenting items during periods of predicted good or poor memory function based on EEG features decoded in real time. Results:The induced memory effect (the difference between recall rates when presenting items during predicted good vs. poor learning periods) increased with the accuracy of neural decoding. Comparison with Existing Methods:This study demonstrates greater-than-chance memory decoding from EEG recordings in a naturalistic virtual navigation task with greater real-world validity than basic word-list recall paradigms. Here we modulate memory by timing stimulus presentation based on noninvasive scalp EEG recordings, whereas prior closed-loop studies for memory improvement involved intracranial recordings and direct electrical stimulation. Other noninvasive studies have investigated the use of neurofeedback or remedial study for memory improvement. Conclusions:These findings present a proof-of-concept for using non-invasive closed-loop technology to optimize human learning and memory through principled stimulus timing, but only in those participants for whom classifiers reliably predict out-of-sample memory function.

Prediction error determines how memories are organized in the brain.

How is new information organized in memory? According to latent state theories, this is determined by the level of surprise, or prediction error, generated by the new information: a small prediction error leads to the updating of existing memory, large prediction error leads to encoding of a new memory. We tested this idea using a protocol in which rats were first conditioned to fear a stimulus paired with shock. The stimulus was then gradually extinguished by progressively reducing the shock intensity until the stimulus was presented alone. Consistent with latent state theories, this gradual extinction protocol (small prediction errors) was better than standard extinction (large prediction errors) in producing long-term suppression of fear responses, and the benefit of gradual extinction was due to updating of the conditioning memory with information about extinction. Thus, prediction error determines how new information is organized in memory, and latent state theories adequately describe the ways in which this occurs.

Endogenous estrogens and brain activation during verbal memory encoding and recognition in the postmenopause.

Determine associations of endogenous estrogens with memory systems in the postmenopausal brain and evaluate clinical significance. In the MsBrain cohort (n=199, mean age 59.3+3.9 years, 83.9% white), we examined the cross-sectional association of serum estradiol and estrone, measured using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), during a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) task of word encoding and recognition. To characterize the clinical significance of those associations, we examined the magnitude of activation in relation to a neuropsychological measures of memory and affect. Endogenous estradiol was positively associated with activation in temporal and frontal cortices during encoding and negatively associated with one prefrontal region during recognition (p<.05). Activation in the left inferior frontal gyrus was associated with memory performance (β(SE)= 0.004(0.002), p<.05), and anxiety (β(SE)= -0.100(0.050), p<.05). The left middle frontal gyrus was associated with memory performance (β(SE)= 0.006(0.002), p<.01), depression, and anxiety. The left superior temporal gyrus (STG) was associated with depression (β(SE)= -0.083(0.036), p<.05) and anxiety (β(SE)= -0.134(0.058), p<.05). Estrone was positively associated with activation in a range of brain areas including bilateral STG and right superior frontal gyrus during encoding (p<.05). Activation of the left insula an precental gyrus were associated with symptoms of depression and anxiety. None related to memory. The function of brain areas critical to memory performance varies with estrogen levels in the postmenopause, even though those levels are low. Higher levels of estradiol may facilitate memory performance through enhanced function of temporal and frontal cortices during encoding of verbal material.

Comparing Neural Correlates of Memory Encoding and Maintenance for Foveal and Peripheral Stimuli.

Visual working memory is believed to rely on top-down attentional mechanisms that sustain active sensory representations in early visual cortex, a mechanism referred to as sensory recruitment. However, both bottom-up sensory input and top-down attentional modulations thereof appear to prioritize the fovea over the periphery, such that initially peripheral percepts may even be assimilated by foveal processes. This raises the question whether and how visual working memory differs for central and peripheral input. To address this, we conducted a delayed orientation recall task in which an orientation was presented either at the center of the screen or at 15° eccentricity to the left or right. Response accuracy, EEG activity, and gaze position were recorded from 30 participants. Accuracy was slightly but significantly higher for foveal versus peripheral memories. Decoding of EEG recordings revealed a clear dissociation between early sensory and later maintenance signals. Although sensory signals were clearly decodable for foveal stimuli, they were not for peripheral input. In contrast, maintenance signals were equally decodable for both foveal and peripheral memories, suggesting comparable top-down components regardless of eccentricity. Moreover, although memory representations were initially spatially specific and reflected in voltage fluctuations, later during the maintenance period, they generalized across locations, as emerged in alpha oscillations, thus revealing a dynamic transformation within memory from separate sensory traces to what we propose are common output-related codes. Furthermore, the combined absence of reliable decoding of sensory signals and robust presence of maintenance decoding indicates that storage activity patterns as measured by EEG reflect signals beyond primary visual cortex. We discuss the implications for the sensory recruitment hypothesis.

Examining the role of stimulus complexity in item and associative memory.

Episodic memory comprises memory for individual information units (item memory) and for the connections among them (associative memory). In two experiments using an object pair learning task, we examined the effect of visual stimulus complexity on memory encoding and retrieval mechanisms and on item and associative memory performance. Subjects encoded pairs of black monochrome object images (low complexity, LC condition) or color photographs of objects (high complexity, HC condition) via interactive imagery, and subsequently item and associative recognition were tested. In Experiment 1, event-related potentials (ERPs) revealed an enhanced frontal N2 during encoding and an enhanced late posterior negativity (LPN) during item recognition in the HC condition, suggesting that memory traces containing visually more complex objects elicited a stronger effort in reconstructing the past episode. Item memory was consistently superior in the HC compared to the LC condition. Associative memory was either statistically unaffected by complexity (Experiment 1) or improved (Experiment 2) in the HC condition, speaking against a tradeoff between resources allocated to item versus associative memory, and hence contradicting results of some prior studies. In Experiment 2, in both young and older adults, both item and associative memory benefitted from stimulus complexity, such that the magnitude of the age-related associative deficit was not influenced by stimulus complexity. Together, these results suggest that if familiar objects are presented in a form that exhibits a higher visual complexity, which may support semantic processing, complexity can benefit both item and associative memory. Stimulus properties that enhance item memory can scaffold associative memory in this situation.

Memory’s gatekeeper: The role of PFC in the encoding of congruent events

Theoretical models conventionally portray the consolidation of memories as a slow process that unfolds during sleep. According to the classical Complementary Learning Systems theory, the hippocampus (HPC) rapidly changes its connectivity during wakefulness to encode ongoing events and create memory ensembles that are later transferred to the prefrontal cortex (PFC) during sleep. However, recent experimental studies challenge this notion by showing that new information consistent with prior knowledge can be rapidly consolidated in PFC during wakefulness and that PFC lesions disrupt the encoding of congruent events in the HPC. The contributions of the PFC to memory encoding have therefore largely been overlooked. Moreover, most theoretical frameworks assume random and uncorrelated patterns representing memories, disregarding the correlations between our experiences. To address these shortcomings, we developed a HPC-PFC network model that simulates interactions between the HPC and PFC during the encoding of a memory (awake stage), and subsequent consolidation (sleeping stage) to examine the contributions of each region to the consolidation of novel and congruent memories. Our results show that the PFC network uses stored memory "schemas" consolidated during previous experiences to identify inputs that evoke congruent patterns of activity, quickly integrate it into its network, and gate which components are encoded in the HPC. More specifically, the PFC uses GABAergic long-range projections to inhibit HPC neurons representing input components correlated with a previously stored memory "schema," eliciting sparse hippocampal activity during exposure to congruent events, as it has been experimentally observed.

A SMARTR workflow for multi-ensemble atlas mapping and brain-wide network analysis.

In the last decade, activity-dependent strategies for labelling multiple immediate early gene (IEG) ensembles in mice have generated unprecedented insight into the mechanisms of memory encoding, storage, and retrieval. However, few strategies exist for brain-wide mapping of multiple ensembles, including their overlapping population, and none incorporate capabilities for downstream network analysis. Here, we introduce a scalable workflow to analyze traditionally coronally-sectioned datasets produced by activity-dependent tagging systems. Intrinsic to this pipeline is simple multi-ensemble atlas registration and statistical testing in R (SMARTR), an R package which wraps mapping capabilities with functions for statistical analysis and network visualization. We demonstrate the versatility of SMARTR by mapping the ensembles underlying the acquisition and expression of learned helplessness (LH), a robust stress model. Applying network analysis, we find that exposure to inescapable shock (IS), compared to context training (CT), results in decreased centrality of regions engaged in spatial and contextual processing and higher influence of regions involved in somatosensory and affective processing. During LH expression, the substantia nigra emerges as a highly influential region which shows a functional reversal following IS, indicating a possible regulatory function of motor activity during helplessness. We also report that IS results in a robust decrease in reactivation activity across a number of cortical, hippocampal, and amygdalar regions, indicating suppression of ensemble reactivation may be a neurobiological signature of LH. These results highlight the emergent insights uniquely garnered by applying our analysis approach to multiple ensemble datasets and demonstrate the strength of our workflow as a hypothesis-generating toolkit.

Beta-band power classification of go/no-go arm-reaching responses in the human hippocampus

Objective. Can we classify movement execution and inhibition from hippocampal oscillations during arm-reaching tasks? Traditionally associated with memory encoding, spatial navigation, and motor sequence consolidation, the hippocampus has come under scrutiny for its potential role in movement processing. Stereotactic electroencephalography (SEEG) has provided a unique opportunity to study the neurophysiology of the human hippocampus during motor tasks. In this study, we assess the accuracy of discriminant functions, in combination with principal component analysis (PCA), in classifying between ‘Go’ and ‘No-go’ trials in a Go/No-go arm-reaching task. Approach. Our approach centers on capturing the modulation of beta-band (13–30 Hz) power from multiple SEEG contacts in the hippocampus and minimizing the dimensional complexity of channels and frequency bins. This study utilizes SEEG data from the human hippocampus of 10 participants diagnosed with epilepsy. Spectral power was computed during a ‘center-out’ Go/No-go arm-reaching task, where participants reached or withheld their hand based on a colored cue. PCA was used to reduce data dimension and isolate the highest-variance components within the beta band. The Silhouette score was employed to measure the quality of clustering between ‘Go’ and ‘No-go’ trials. The accuracy of five different discriminant functions was evaluated using cross-validation. Main results. The Diagonal-Quadratic model performed best of the 5 classification models, exhibiting the lowest error rate in all participants (median: 9.91%, average: 14.67%). PCA showed that the first two principal components collectively accounted for 54.83% of the total variance explained on average across all participants, ranging from 36.92% to 81.25% among participants. Significance. This study shows that PCA paired with a Diagonal-Quadratic model can be an effective method for classifying between Go/No-go trials from beta-band power in the hippocampus during arm-reaching responses. This emphasizes the significance of hippocampal beta-power modulation in motor control, unveiling its potential implications for brain–computer interface applications.

Do actions structure auditory memory? Action-based event segmentation effects on sensory responses, pupil dilation and sequential memory.

Our actions shape our everyday experience: what we experience, how we perceive, and remember it are deeply affected by how we interact with the world. Performing an action to deliver a stimulus engages neurophysiological processes which are reflected in the modulation of sensory and pupil responses. We hypothesized that these processes shape memory encoding, parsing the experience by grouping self- and externally generated stimuli into differentiated events. Participants encoded sound sequences, in which either the first or last few sounds were self-generated and the rest externally generated. We tested recall of the sequential order of sounds that had originated from the same (within event) or different sources (across events). Memory performance was not higher for within-event sounds, suggesting that actions did not structure the memory representation. However, during encoding, we observed the expected electrophysiological response attenuation for self-generated sounds, together with increased pupil dilation triggered by actions. Moreover, at the boundary between events, physiological responses to the first sound from the new source were influenced by the direction of the source switch. Our results suggest that introducing actions creates a stronger contextual shift than removing them, even though actions do not directly contribute to memory performance. This study contributes to our understanding of how interacting with sensory input shapes experiences by exploring the relationships between action effects on sensory responses, pupil dilation, and memory encoding. Importantly, it challenges the notion of a meaningful contribution from low-level neurophysiological mechanisms associated with action execution in the modulation of the self-generation effect.

Why Pimping Works: The Neurophysiology of Emotional Memories.

A time-honored medical ritual that combines emotion and cognition into a seamless consolidation of lucid memories is a feared teaching method in medical education. The resulting neurophysiology is explained from a neurosurgeon's perspective - equal parts guilt and dread as a prescription for an improved and sustained trainee fund of knowledge. Much of the available literature published with regard to pimping explores its pedagogy and use in medical practice. This review aims to explore the neurobehavioral and biological aspects of pimping in why it remains a popular teaching model. We describe the neuromodulatory process of integrating emotions and memory as observed during pimping. Additionally, we explore the neuronal pathways and circuits involved in memory encoding, consolidation, and retrieval. Finally, we explored theeffects of this methodology as it is currently used in the United States medical education system.

Peer creation and sharing of mnemonics in collaborative documents for pathology education: a pilot study

BackgroundMnemonic techniques are memory aids that could help improve memory encoding, storage, and retrieval. Using the brain's natural propensity for pattern recognition and association, new information is associated with something familiar, such as an image, a structure, or a pattern. This should be particularly useful for learning complex medical information. Collaborative documents have the potential to revolutionize online learning because they could increase the creativity, productivity, and efficiency of learning. The purpose of this study was to investigate the feasibility of combining peer creation and sharing of mnemonics with collaborative online documents to improve pathology education.MethodsWe carried out a prospective, quasi-experimental, pretest–posttest pilot study. The intervention group was trained to create and share mnemonics in collaborative documents for pathological cases, based on histopathological slides. The control group compared analog and digital microscopy.ResultsBoth groups consisted of 41 students and did not reveal demographic differences. Performance evaluations did not reveal significant differences between the groups' pretest and posttest scores. Our pilot study revealed several pitfalls, especially in instructional design, time on task, and digital literacy, that could have masked possible learning benefits.ConclusionsThere is a gap in evidence-based research, both on mnemonics and on CD in pathology didactics. Even though, the combination of peer creation and sharing of mnemonics is very promising from a cognitive neurobiological standpoint, and collaborative documents have great potential to promote the digital transformation of medical education and increase cooperation, creativity, productivity, and efficiency of learning. However, the incorporation of such innovative techniques requires meticulous instructional design by teachers and additional time for students to become familiar with new learning methods and the application of new digital tools to promote also digital literacy. Future studies should also take into account validated high-stakes testing for more reliable pre-posttest results, a larger cohort of students, and anticipate technical difficulties regarding new digital tools.

Age-related reduction in anxiety and neural encoding of negative emotional memory.

Older adults experience less anxiety. We examined how memory of negative emotional images varied with age and may reflect age-related differences in anxiety. Fifty-one adults, age 22-80 years, underwent imaging with a memory task where negative and neutral images were displayed pseudo-randomly. They were queried post-scan about the images inter-mixed with an equal number of images never displayed. Sensitivity (d') and reporting bias (Z-score of false alarm rate; Z[FAR]) were quantified with signal detection theory. Age was negatively correlated with both Spielberg State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) state score and d' (negative - neutral) and positively with Z[FAR] (negative - neutral). However, STAI score and d' or Z[FAR] (negative - neutral) were not significantly correlated. In whole-brain regression, STAI score was correlated with higher activity of the right middle/superior temporal gyri/temporal parietal junction (MTG/STG/TPJ) for "negative correct - incorrect" - "neutral correct - incorrect" trials. Further, the MTG/STG/TPJ activity (β) was also negatively correlated with age. Mediation analyses supported a complete mediation model of age → less anxiety → less MTG/STG/TPJ β. Together, the findings demonstrated age-related changes in negative emotional memory and how age-related reduction in anxiety is reflected in diminished temporoparietal cortical activities during encoding of negative emotional memory.

Frequency-specific directed connectivity between the hippocampus and parietal cortex during verbal and spatial episodic memory: an intracranial EEG replication.

Hippocampus-parietal cortex circuits are thought to play a crucial role in memory and attention, but their neural basis remains poorly understood. We employed intracranial intracranial electroencephalography (iEEG) to investigate the neurophysiological underpinning of these circuits across three memory tasks spanning verbal and spatial domains. We uncovered a consistent pattern of higher causal directed connectivity from the hippocampus to both lateral parietal cortex (supramarginal and angular gyrus) and medial parietal cortex (posterior cingulate cortex) in the delta-theta band during memory encoding and recall. This connectivity was independent of activation or suppression states in the hippocampus or parietal cortex. Crucially, directed connectivity from the supramarginal gyrus to the hippocampus was enhanced in participants with higher memory recall, highlighting its behavioral significance. Our findings align with the attention-to-memory model, which posits that attention directs cognitive resources toward pertinent information during memory formation. The robustness of these results was demonstrated through Bayesian replication analysis of the memory encoding and recall periods across the three tasks. Our study sheds light on the neural basis of casual signaling within hippocampus-parietal circuits, broadening our understanding of their critical roles in human cognition.

The auditory stimulus facilitates memory guidance in distractor suppression in males with substance use disorder.

Representations in working memory can affect distractor suppression in human visual search, and this process is modulated by a separate top-down cognitive control. An increasing body of research has demonstrated that patients with substance use disorder (SUD) have deficits in cognitive control over filtering interference by perceptual distractors. However, their ability to resist proactive interference from working memory has received comparatively less attention. Here, we investigate this issue by employing a working memory/visual search dual-task paradigm. An intervening gap-location search task was instructed to be performed while participants memorized a written color word, with congruent auditory information present during the memory encoding phase on half of the trials. Results showed that there was a reliable response time (RT) advantage when the meaning of the memory sample agreed with the color of one of the distractors under the visual alone condition. However, such a result was only found in the control group. More importantly, both groups exhibited comparable facilitation under the audiovisual condition, with the facilitation effect appearing later in the SUD group. Furthermore, the facilitation effect was superior in magnitude and time course under the audiovisual condition to the visual alone condition. These findings highlight how patients with SUD resist distractor interference at the memory level and extend our understanding of how working memory, selective attention, and audiovisual enhancement interact to optimize perceptual decisions in patients with SUD.

Differential effects of clonazepam on declarative memory formation and face recognition

Benzodiazepines are commonly used drugs to treat anxiety in crime witnesses. These increase GABA inhibitory effects, which impairs aversive memory encoding and consolidation. Eyewitness memory is essential in justice. However, memory is malleable leading to false memories that could cause a selection of an innocent in a lineup. Here, we studied whether a low dose of Clonazepam impairs memory encoding as well as consolidation of faces and narrative of the event. We performed two experiments using a double-blind and between subject design (N = 216). Day 1: subjects watched a crime video and received Clonazepam 0.25 mg (CLZ group) or placebo (PLC group) before (Exp. 1) or after the video (Exp. 2) to assess the effect on encoding and consolidation. One week later, the memory was assessed using a present and absent target lineup and asking for a free recall. Regarding encoding, we found that in the CLZ group memory was impaired in the free recall task, while no differences were found for recognition memory. Regarding consolidation, we did not observe memory measures that were affected by this dose of benzodiazepines. The results suggest that while some aspects of eyewitness memory could be modulated even with low doses of benzodiazepine, others could not be affected. More studies should be performed with higher doses of CLZ similar to those administered in real life. These results are relevant in the judicial field to assess the reliability of the eyewitness elections under the effects of this drug.

Remembering the good and bad and the self and others in a culturally modulated self-memory system

ABSTRACT Wang and Conway (2006, Autobiographical memory, self, and culture. In L.-G. Nilsson, & N. Ohta (Eds.), Memory and society: Psychological perspectives (pp. 9–27). Psychology Press) posit that remembering takes place in a culturally modulated self-memory system in which working self-goals are shaped by society and, in turn, influence the encoding and construction of memories in a culturally canonical fashion. The current research examined the self-goal of competence, which manifests through self-enhancement versus self-improvement motivations, in influencing remembering in different cultural contexts. We conducted two cross-cultural studies to examine memories for personal successes and failures (Study 1) and autobiographical and vicarious experiences (Study 2) in connection with individuals’ positive self-views. European Americans recalled a greater number of success than failure memories (Study 1) and US participants recalled a greater number of autobiographical than vicarious memories (Study 2), which was further associated with positive self-views at the individual level. In contrast, Asian (Study 1) and Chinese participants (Study 2) recalled even-handedly the different types of memories, and the memory retrieval was unrelated to individuals’ self-views. We discuss the findings in light of the different manifestations of the competence goal in shaping memory in the culturally modulated self-memory system.

Effects of endogenous testosterone on oscillatory activity during verbal working memory in youth.

Testosterone levels sharply rise during the transition from childhood to adolescence and these changes are known to be associated with changes in human brain structure. During this same developmental window, there are also robust changes in the neural oscillatory dynamics serving verbal working memory processing. Surprisingly, whereas many studies have investigated the effects of chronological age on the neural oscillations supporting verbal working memory, none have probed the impact of endogenous testosterone levels during this developmental period. Using a sample of 89 youth aged 6-14 years-old, we collected salivary testosterone samples and recorded magnetoencephalography during a modified Sternberg verbal working memory task. Significant oscillatory responses were identified and imaged using a beamforming approach and the resulting maps were subjected to whole-brain ANCOVAs examining the effects of testosterone and sex, controlling for age, during verbal working memory encoding and maintenance. Our primary results indicated robust testosterone-related effects in theta (4-7 Hz) and alpha (8-14 Hz) oscillatory activity, controlling for age. During encoding, females exhibited weaker theta oscillations than males in right cerebellar cortices and stronger alpha oscillations in left temporal cortices. During maintenance, youth with greater testosterone exhibited weaker alpha oscillations in right parahippocampal and cerebellar cortices, as well as regions across the left-lateralized language network. These results extend the existing literature on the development of verbal working memory processing by showing region and sex-specific effects of testosterone, and are the first results to link endogenous testosterone levels to the neural oscillatory activity serving verbal working memory, above and beyond the effects of chronological age.

Neural underpinnings of memory encoding and retrieval: Validation of a novel ecologically valid fMRI paradigm

Cognitive impairment is prevalent in affective disorders. Currently, there is a lack of effective treatment options, which is partly due to limited insight into their neural underpinnings and poor transfer to everyday life. Integrating neuroimaging measures in cognition trials to identify neurocircuitry biomarkers is crucial for treatment development. We pooled baseline data from two clinical trials to validate a novel functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) paradigm simulating real-life verbal learning and memory tasks. Healthy participants with no psychiatric history (n = 34) underwent fMRI and an ecologically valid virtual reality-based verbal memory task. During fMRI, they performed an ecologically valid paradigm involving encoding and recognition of a grocery shopping list. Whole-brain analyses assessed task-related activation in key neural networks. Neural underpinnings of memory encoding involved the hippocampus, prefrontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal regions, and caudate. Recognition task activation encompassed a network of frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital regions. Positive associations were found between encoding-related activity in the inferior temporal gyrus and lateral occipital cortex and the number of correctly recalled grocery items. This study introduces and validates a novel fMRI paradigm for assessing real-life verbal learning and memory abilities. The identified neural underpinnings highlight the involvement of diverse brain regions in encoding and recognition processes that may be implemented in future investigations of the neural correlates of memory impairment and improvement.

Curiosity in Science Learning: A Systematic Literature Review

This review systematically examines the role of curiosity in science learning, focusing on its influence on engagement, cognitive processes, and educational outcomes. A comprehensive literature search was conducted using databases such as Scopus, resulting in the selection of 40 peer-reviewed empirical studies published between 2019 and 2024. Inclusion and exclusion criteria ensured the relevance and rigor of the selected studies. The findings reveal that curiosity significantly enhances memory encoding and consolidation, motivates learners, and supports exploratory behavior. Specifically, studies indicated that curiosity-driven learning leads to improved attention and learning processes, resulting in better educational outcomes. Pedagogical strategies that foster curiosity, including the integration of large language models and innovative teaching tools, have been shown to effectively enhance student engagement and learning in science. Quantitative data from the reviewed studies demonstrate that curiosity-driven approaches lead to a 25% increase in student engagement and a 30% improvement in learning outcomes. The review underscores the importance of systematically integrating curiosity-enhancing strategies within pedagogy to create more engaging and effective educational experiences. Future research should focus on developing comprehensive measurement tools for assessing curiosity and conducting longitudinal studies to explore its long-term impact on academic achievement and skill development. Additionally, the exploration of modern technologies in enhancing curiosity-driven learning should be prioritized. Educators are encouraged to implement pedagogical strategies that stimulate curiosity to maintain and enhance student engagement and achievement in science learning.

EEG Activation During a Mindfulness Session and Its Effects on Memory Encoding

EEG Activation During a Mindfulness Session and Its Effects on Memory Encoding