Memory-based Choice Research Articles

Of popsicles and crackers: when spatio-temporal memory is not integrated into children's decision-making.

Prior research has used innovative paradigms to show that some non-human animal species demonstrate behavioural choices (i.e. foraging for a food item at a specific location, and at a time that guarantees it has not yet decayed), reflecting episodic-like or 'WWW' memory (memory for 'what' happened, 'where' and 'when'). These results raised the question of whether similar approaches could be used to examine memory in young children in order to reduce verbal demands. The present research examines the extent to which children's WWW memory aligns with memory-based choices in 3- to 5-year-olds (n = 95; study 1) and in 7- to 11-year-olds and adults (n = 168; study 2). Results indicate that preschoolers' struggle with choice-based tasks probably reflects difficulty integrating their WWW memory with an understanding that certain items decay over time. Moreover, a convergence between verbal recall measures and choice-based measures is observable in 7-year-olds and beyond, reflecting a stronger integration of memory signals, understanding of state transformation, and decision-making. This article is part of the theme issue 'Elements of episodic memory: lessons from 40 years of research'.

Neuronal Representation of a Working Memory-Based Decision Strategy in the Motor and Prefrontal Cortico-Basal Ganglia Loops.

While animal and human decision strategies are typically explained by model-free and model-based reinforcement learning (RL), their choice sequences often follow simple procedures based on working memory (WM) of past actions and rewards. Here, we address how working memory-based choice strategies, such as win-stay-lose-switch (WSLS), are represented in the prefrontal and motor cortico-basal ganglia loops by simultaneous recording of neuronal activities in the dorsomedial striatum (DMS), the dorsolateral striatum (DLS), the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), and the primary motor cortex (M1). In order to compare neuronal representations when rats employ working memory-based strategies, we developed a new task paradigm, a continuous/intermittent choice task, consisting of choice and no-choice trials. While the continuous condition (CC) consisted of only choice trials, in the intermittent condition (IC), a no-choice trial was inserted after each choice trial to disrupt working memory of the previous choice and reward. Behaviors in CC showed high proportions of win-stay and lose-switch choices, which could be regarded as "a noisy WSLS strategy." Poisson regression of neural spikes revealed encoding specifically in CC of the previous action and reward before action choice and prospective coding of WSLS action during action execution. A striking finding was that the DLS and M1 in the motor cortico-basal ganglia loop carry substantial WM information about previous choices, rewards, and their interactions, in addition to current action coding.

Neurons as will and representation.

Memory recollections and voluntary actions are often perceived as spontaneously generated irrespective of external stimuli. Although products of our neurons, they are only rarely accessible in humans at the neuronal level. Here I review insights gleaned from unique neurosurgical opportunities to record and stimulate single-neuron activity in people who can declare their thoughts, memories and wishes. I discuss evidence that the subjective experience of human recollection and that of voluntary action arise from the activity of two internal neuronal generators, the former from medial temporal lobe reactivation and the latter from frontoparietal preactivation. I characterize properties of these generators and their interaction, enabling flexible recruitment of memory-based choices for action as well as recruitment of action-based plans for the representation of conceptual knowledge in memories. Both internal generators operate on surprisingly explicit but different neuronal codes, which appear to arise with distinct single-neuron activity, often observed before participants' reports of conscious awareness. I discuss prediction of behaviour based on these codes, and the potential for their modulation. The prospects of editing human memories and volitions by enhancement, inception or deletion of specific, selected content raise therapeutic possibilities and ethical concerns.

Post-error Slowing During Instrumental Learning is Shaped by Working Memory-based Choice Strategies

Post-error slowing (PES) – a relative increase in response time for a decision on trialtgiven an error on trialt − 1 – is a well-known effect in studies of human decision-making. Post-error processing is reflected in neural signatures such as reduced activity in sensorimotor regions and increased activity in medial prefrontal cortex. PES is thought to reflect the deployment of executive resources to get task performance back on track. This provides a general account of PES that cuts across perceptual decision-making, memory, and learning tasks. With respect to PES and learning, things are complicated by the fact that learning often reflectsmultiple qualitatively different processes with distinct neural correlates. It is unclear if multiple processes shape PES during learning, or if PES reflects a policy for reacting to errors generated by one particular process (e.g., cortico-striatal reinforcement learning). Here we provide behavioral and computational evidence that PES is influenced by the operation of multiple distinct processes. Human subjects learned a simple visuomotor skill (arbitrary visuomotor association learning) under low load conditionsmore amenable to simple working memory-based strategies, and high load conditions that were putatively more reliant on trial-by-trial reinforcement learning. PES decreased withload, even when the progress of learning (i.e., reinforcement history) was accounted for. This result suggested that PES during learning is influenced by the recruitment of working memory. Indeed, observed PES effects were approximated by a computational model with parallel working memory and reinforcement learning systems that are differentially recruited according to cognitive load.

Hippocampal replay reflects specific past experiences rather than a plan for subsequent choice

Executing memory-guided behavior requires storage of information about experience and later recall of that information to inform choices. Awake hippocampal replay, when hippocampal neural ensembles briefly reactivate a representation related to prior experience, has been proposed to critically contribute to these memory-related processes. However, it remains unclear whether awake replay contributes to memory function by promoting the storage of past experiences, facilitating planning based on evaluation of those experiences, or both. We designed a dynamic spatial task that promotes replay before a memory-based choice and assessed how the content of replay related to past and future behavior. We found that replay content was decoupled from subsequent choice and instead was enriched for representations of previously rewarded locations and places that had not been visited recently, indicating a role in memory storage rather than in directly guiding subsequent behavior.

Flexible recruitment of memory-based choice representations by the human medial frontal cortex.

Decision-making in complex environments relies on flexibly using prior experience. This process depends on the medial frontal cortex (MFC) and the medial temporal lobe, but it remains unknown how these structures implement selective memory retrieval. We recorded single neurons in the MFC, amygdala, and hippocampus while human subjects switched between making recognition memory-based and categorization-based decisions. The MFC rapidly implemented changing task demands by using different subspaces of neural activity and by representing the currently relevant task goal. Choices requiring memory retrieval selectively engaged phase-locking of MFC neurons to amygdala and hippocampus field potentials, thereby enabling the routing of memories. These findings reveal a mechanism for flexibly and selectively engaging memory retrieval and show that memory-based choices are preferentially represented in the frontal cortex when required.

Semantic processes in preferential decision making.

This article examines how semantic memory processes influence the items that are considered by decision makers in memory-based preferential choice. Experiments 1A through 1C ask participants to list the choice items that come to their minds while deliberating in a variety of everyday choice settings. These experiments use semantic space models to quantify the semantic relatedness between pairs of retrieved items and find that choice item retrieval displays robust semantic clustering effects, with retrieved items increasing the retrieval probabilities of related items. Semantic clustering can be disassociated from the effect of item desirability and can lead to inefficiencies such as the consideration and evaluation of undesirable items early on in the decision. Experiments 2A through 2C use a similar approach to study the effects of contextual cues on item retrieval and find that decision makers are biased toward retrieving choice items that are semantically related to the choice context. This effect is usually strongest early on in deliberation and weakens as additional items are retrieved. Overall, the results highlight the role of semantic memory processes in guiding the generation of memory-based choice sets, and illustrate the value of semantic space models for studying preferential decision making. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Single-Neuron Representation of Memory Strength and Recognition Confidence in Left Human Posterior Parietal Cortex

The human posterior parietal cortex (PPC) is thought to contribute to memory retrieval, but little is known about its specific role. We recorded single PPC neurons of two human tetraplegic subjects implanted with microelectrode arrays, who performed a recognition memory task. We found two groups of neurons that signaled memory-based choices. Memory-selective neurons preferred either novel or familiar stimuli, scaled their response as a function of confidence, and signaled subjective choices regardless of truth. Confidence-selective neurons signaled confidence regardless of stimulus familiarity. Memory-selective signals appeared 553ms after stimulus onset, but before action onset. Neurons also encoded spoken numbers, but these number-tuned neurons did not carry recognition signals. Together, this functional separation reveals action-independent coding of declarative memory-based familiarity and confidence of choices in human PPC. These data suggest that, in addition to sensory-motor integration, a function of human PPC is to utilize memory signals to make choices.

The influence of positive affect on consideration set formation in memory-based choice

Although prior research has examined whether positive affect can impact consideration set size in stimulus-based choice, unknown to this point is whether affective influences also characterize memory-based consideration processes. This distinction is important insofar as consideration in memory-based choice entails psychological processes (including those involving the accessibility of brands) that are unique to choice undertaken in memory-based settings. Experiment 1 provides an initial demonstration of positive affect’s ability to shape memory-based consideration by documenting that positive (versus neutral) affect leads to larger consideration sets. Two additional experiments extend these findings by showing that the influence of positive affect on consideration set size is moderated by characteristics of brands (typicality) and consumers (regulatory focus). Experiment 2 demonstrates that this increase in memory-based consideration set size is attributable to a greater number of atypical, but not typical, brands being considered under positive affect. Experiment 3 documents the moderating effect exerted by consumers’ regulatory focus by showing that the ability of positive affect to increase consideration set size is more likely for consumers high (but not low) on promotion focus. The theoretical and managerial implications of these findings are discussed as are suggestions for future research.

Effects of Prior Exposure on Restaurant Menu Product Choice

The purpose of this research is to examine the effects of prior exposure on restaurant menu-product sales. Several experiments were conducted to investigate how prior-exposure menu presentation affects memory processes in two types of choice situations (memory-based and stimulus-based) and how prior exposure on restaurant menu-item sales affects consumer attitude. The results indicate that memory-based choices benefit from the prior-exposure menu and are enhanced by conceptually driven memory. Stimulus-based choices benefit from prior exposure and are enhanced by perceptually driven memory. Appropriate prior-exposure menu increases product sales; however, consumers were not willing to purchase the items. Suggestions for restaurant marketers/managers are proposed in this article.

The effect of visual salience on memory-based choices

Deciding whether a stimulus is the “same” or “different” from a previous presented one involves integrating among the incoming sensory information, working memory, and perceptual decision making. Visual selective attention plays a crucial role in selecting the relevant information that informs a subsequent course of action. Previous studies have mainly investigated the role of visual attention during the encoding phase of working memory tasks. In this study, we investigate whether manipulation of bottom-up attention by changing stimulus visual salience impacts on later stages of memory-based decisions. In two experiments, we asked subjects to identify whether a stimulus had either the same or a different feature to that of a memorized sample. We manipulated visual salience of the test stimuli by varying a task-irrelevant feature contrast. Subjects chose a visually salient item more often when they looked for matching features and less often so when they looked for a nonmatch. This pattern of results indicates that salient items are more likely to be identified as a match. We interpret the findings in terms of capacity limitations at a comparison stage where a visually salient item is more likely to exhaust resources leading it to be prematurely parsed as a match.

Calorie information effects on consumers' food choices: Sources of observed gender heterogeneity

A larger portion of males is overweight than is females. Females' food choices in comparison to those of males reflect the greater importance that females attribute to health and physical appearance; their more complex attitude toward risk; the greater esteem in which they hold home-cooked food; and sociological factors. This paper explores the variables that affect consumers' food choices, shedding light specifically on the choice process and analyzing whether gender affects predispositions toward foods, perceptions, choice processes, or all three. Perceptions and choice processes based on memory judgments serve only as a benchmark used to compare choices consumers make under calorie information. The results of two experiments wherein the researchers exposed subjects to two forms of calorie information on three fast food items suggest that differences in perceptions of foods' healthfulness and taste aspects account for gender differences in memory-based choices. In addition to this baseline difference in perceptions, a gender difference in reaction to calorie information in terms of consumers' behavior exists. While calorie information affected both perceptions and choice processes for females, information changed the perceptions of food only for males.

Electrical high frequency stimulation in the dorsal striatum: Effects on response learning and on GABA levels in rats

Electrical high frequency stimulation (HFS) has been used to treat various neurological and psychiatric diseases. The striatal area contributes to response learning and procedural memory. Therefore, we investigated the effect of striatal HFS application on procedural/declarative-like memory in rats. All rats were trained in a flooded Double-H maze for three days (4 trials/day) to swim to an escape platform hidden at a constant location. The starting place was the same for all trials. After each training session, HFS of the left dorsal striatum was performed over 4h in alternating 20min periods (during rest time, 10a.m. to 3p.m.). Nineteen hours after the last HFS and right after a probe trial assessing the rats’ strategy (procedural vs. declarative-like memory-based choice), animals were sacrificed and the dorsal striatum was quickly removed. Neurotransmitter levels were measured by HPLC. Stimulated rats did not differ from sham-operated and control rats in acquisition performance, but exhibited altered behavior during the probe trial (procedural memory responses being less frequent than in controls). In stimulated rats, GABA levels were significantly increased in the dorsal striatum on both sides. We suggest that HFS of the dorsal striatum does not alter learning behavior in rats but influences the strategy by which the rats solve the task. Given that the HFS-induced increase of GABA levels was found 19h after stimulation, it can be assumed that HFS has consequences lasting for several hours and which are functionally significant at a behavioral level, at least under our stimulation (frequency, timing, location, side and strength of stimulation) and testing conditions.

Children playing branded video games: The impact of interactivity on product placement effectiveness

This study extends product placement research by testing the impact of interactivity on product placement effectiveness. The results suggest that when children cannot interact with the placements in video games, perceptual fluency is the underlying mechanism leading to positive affect. Therefore, the effects are only evident in a stimulus-based choice where the same stimulus is provided as a cue. However, when children have the opportunity to interact with the placements in video games, they may be influenced by conceptual fluency. Thus, placements are still effective in a memory-based choice where no stimulus is provided as a cue.

Inhibition as an adaptive mechanism in memory-based choices

This study examines the role of inhibitory processes in memory-based choices. In two experiments, the effects of the competitive nature of memory retrieval as well as the valence of the to-be-retrieved items on a recall and a choice task are examined by using the retrieval practice paradigm. The results show a parallel pattern for both tasks. Specifically, neither forgetting nor choice bias were found in the non-competitive retrieval condition, for both positive and negative information. Nevertheless, a retrieval-induced forgetting and a choice bias effect were found in the competitive retrieval condition, although only for positive information. Interestingly, this negativity effect disappeared when positive information was excluded from to-be-learned material. These findings suggest the way in which the lasting consequences of inhibition affect choice processes.

Feeling and Thinking in Memory‐Based versus Stimulus‐Based Choices

We contrast memory-based and stimulus-based choices, using dual-process theories such as Kahneman and Frederick's system 1/system 2 dichotomy. Systems 1 and 2 are conceptualized as distinct modes of thought, the former automatic and affective, the latter controlled and deliberate. Cognitive load impedes system 2, yielding greater reliance on system 1. In memory-based choice, consumers must maintain relevant options in working memory. Thus, memory-based choices are associated with greater cognitive load than stimulus-based choices. Indeed, we find that memory-based choices favor immediately compelling, affect-rich system 1 options, whereas stimulus-based choices favor affect-poor options whose attractiveness emerges from deliberative system 2 thought.

Role of Forgetting in Memory-Based Choice Decisions: A Structural Model

We propose a structural model to investigate the impact of forgetting on consumers' brand choice decisions in frequently purchased products. Forgetting results in consumers imperfectly recalling their prior brand evaluations when making a purchase decision in the category. We conceptualize the imperfect recall by positing that consumers recall their prior evaluations with noise. Based on prior research in the behavioral area, we characterize the extent of forgetting as an increasing and concave function of time. Our framework generates analytical results on the impact of forgetting on consumers' brand evaluations and their consequent purchase behavior. We calibrate our model using scanner panel data for liquid detergents. Furthermore, we obtain insights into the consumers' extent of forgetting in the category, extent of learning, predicted price elasticities and implications on state dependence and habit persistence. Our results underscore the importance of modeling consumers' ability to recall only imperfectly.

Effects of Implicit Memory on Memory-Based versus Stimulus-Based Brand Choice

The author introduces implicit (versus explicit) memory to examine advertising effects on brand choice. Whereas explicit memory is demonstrated by the conscious recollection of an event, implicit memory is inferred by an improvement in some task performance as the result of having experienced the event. This research shows that memory-based choice benefits from advertising that enhances conceptually driven implicit memory whereas stimulus-based choice benefits from advertising that enhances perceptually driven implicit memory. The findings provide evidence that the two types of implicit memory and explicit memory are distinct constructs of memory; the findings also suggest that implicit memory measures may be more useful indicators of advertising effectiveness than explicit memory measures.

Recall and Consumer Consideration Sets: Influencing Choice without Altering Brand Evaluations

This article focuses on memory-based choice situations where changes in a brand's accessibility may affect the probability that it is retrieved and considered for choice. In such instances, factors other than evaluation may affect which brands are brought to mind at purchase. Two experiments are described that manipulate the determinants of brand accessibility and measure consequent effects on retrieval, consideration, choice, and evaluation. Results provide evidence for the influence of memory during the brand-choice process. For a brand to be selected in memory-based choice, the consumer must recall that brand and fail to recall other brands that might otherwise be preferred.

Consumers' Use of Memory and External Information in Choice: Macro and Micro Perspectives

Eight issues concerning how consumers use memory and external information to make a brand choice are examined. Some subjects made a choice using external information only, whereas others had some of the information in differentially accessible memory stores. Protocol analysis showed that subjects making memory-based choices used a larger number and variety of processing operations. However, these subjects used less complex operations and also compartmentalized their processing of external and memory information. Memory accessibility was related to choice differences. The findings form the basis for a set of propositions about memory processes in consumer choice.