Membrane-bound Monomer Research Articles

Naphthylated LEGO-lipophosphonoxin antibiotics used as a fluorescent tool for the observation of target membrane perturbations preceding its disruption

Linker-Evolved-Group-Optimized-Lipophosphonoxins (LEGO-LPPO) are small synthetic modular peptidomimetics with promising antimicrobial activity. The LEGO-LPPO mechanism of antibacterial action has been determined to be the depolarization and disruption of bacterial membranes. Their modular nature is advantageous for fine tuning their biological properties. In order to optimize the structure of LEGO-LPPO even further, it is important to understand the interaction of LEGO-LPPO with bacterial membranes at the molecular level. In this work, we present the synthesis of five LEGO-LPPO (designated as1_naph2-4-G to5_naph2-4-G) molecules bearing fluorescent naphtylethyl moieties and their usage in the study of LEGO-LPPO behaviour in the membrane. Our goal was to characterize fluorescently labelled LEGO-LPPO under conditions that do not completely disrupt the membrane, mostly in the form of membrane-bound monomers. We observed the intramolecular interactions of hydrophobic modules of1_naph2-4-G in the buffer by detecting dynamic naphthyl excimers and their disappearance after1_naph2-4-G bind into the membranes. In the membrane, the molecule1_naph2-4-G slightly affects the membrane fluidity of DOPG membranes above the phase transition. The naphthyl fluorophore itself has fast and almost unrestricted rotation around ethylene linking groups (rinf= 0.010), which indicates a considerable chaotropic effect of the hydrophobic modules of1_naph2-4-G at the given depth of the membrane.1_naph2-4-G proved to be a useful model for observing the interaction of LEGO-LPPO antibiotics with the phospholipid bilayer enabling us to decipher its effects on membrane state and dynamics; its binding and penetration into the membrane, its structure and the particular depth that it occupies.

Assembly of α-synuclein aggregates on phospholipid bilayers

The spontaneous self-assembly of α-synuclein (α-syn) into aggregates of different morphologies is associated with the development of Parkinson's disease. However, the mechanism behind the spontaneous assembly remains elusive. The current study shows a novel effect of phospholipid bilayers on the assembly of the α-syn aggregates. Using time-lapse atomic force microscopy, it was discovered that α-syn assembles into aggregates on bilayer surfaces, even at the nanomolar concentration range. The efficiency of the aggregation process depends on the membrane composition, with the greatest efficiency observed for of 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-l-serine (POPS). Importantly, assembled aggregates can dissociate from the surface, suggesting that on-surface aggregation is a mechanism by which pathological aggregates may be produced. Computational modeling revealed that dimers of α-syn assembled rapidly, through the membrane-bound monomer on POPS bilayer, due to an aggregation-prone orientation of α-syn. Interaction of α-syn with 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC) leads to a binding mode that does not induce a fast assembly of the dimer. Based on these findings, we propose a model in which the interaction of α-syn with membranes plays a critical role initiating the formation of α-syn aggregates and the overall aggregation process.

Perfringolysin O: The Underrated Clostridium perfringens Toxin?

The anaerobic bacterium Clostridium perfringens expresses multiple toxins that promote disease development in both humans and animals. One such toxin is perfringolysin O (PFO, classically referred to as θ toxin), a pore-forming cholesterol-dependent cytolysin (CDC). PFO is secreted as a water-soluble monomer that recognizes and binds membranes via cholesterol. Membrane-bound monomers undergo structural changes that culminate in the formation of an oligomerized prepore complex on the membrane surface. The prepore then undergoes conversion into the bilayer-spanning pore measuring approximately 250–300 Å in diameter. PFO is expressed in nearly all identified C. perfringens strains and harbors interesting traits that suggest a potential undefined role for PFO in disease development. Research has demonstrated a role for PFO in gas gangrene progression and bovine necrohemorrhagic enteritis, but there is limited data available to determine if PFO also functions in additional disease presentations caused by C. perfringens. This review summarizes the known structural and functional characteristics of PFO, while highlighting recent insights into the potential contributions of PFO to disease pathogenesis.

Membrane interactions and fibrillization of α-synuclein play an essential role in membrane disruption

We studied α-synuclein (αS) aggregation in giant vesicles, and observed dramatic membrane disintegration, as well as lipid incorporation into micrometer-sized suprafibrillar aggregates. In the presence of dye-filled vesicles, dye leakage and fibrillization happen concurrently. However, growing fibrils do not impair the integrity of phospholipid vesicles that have a low affinity for αS. Seeding αS aggregation accelerates dye leakage, indicating that oligomeric species are not required to explain the observed effect. The evolving picture suggests that fibrils that appear in solution bind membranes and recruit membrane-bound monomers, resulting in lipid extraction, membrane destabilization and the formation of lipid-containing suprafibrillar aggregates.

Lipid-associated aggregate formation of superoxide dismutase-1 is initiated by membrane-targeting loops.

Copper-Zinc superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) is a homodimeric enzyme that protects cells from oxidative damage. Hereditary and sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis may be linked to SOD1 when the enzyme is destabilized through mutation or environmental stress. The cytotoxicity of demetallated or apo-SOD1 aggregates may be due to their ability to cause defects within cell membranes by co-aggregating with phospholipids. SOD1 monomers may associate with the inner cell membrane to receive copper ions from membrane-bound copper chaperones. But how apo-SOD1 interacts with lipids is unclear. We have used atomistic molecular dynamics simulations to reveal that flexible electrostatic and zinc-binding loops in apo-SOD1 dimers play a critical role in the binding of 1-octanol clusters and phospholipid bilayer, without any significant unfolding of the protein. The apo-SOD1 monomer also associates with phospholipid bilayer via its zinc-binding loop rather than its exposed hydrophobic dimerization interface. Our observed orientation of the monomer on the bilayer would facilitate its association with a membrane-bound copper chaperone. The orientation also suggests how membrane-bound monomers could act as seeds for membrane-associated SOD1 aggregation.

Purification and characterization of a low-temperature ammonia monooxygenase from heterotrophic nitrifier Acinetobacter sp. Y16

Low-temperature ammonia monooxygenase (AMO) was purified from a heterotrophic nitrifier Acinetobacter sp. Y16 by anion-exchange and gel-filtration chromatography. The purified enzyme was a membrane-bound monomer with a molecular mass of approximately 31 kDa. It could catalyze the oxidation of ammonium without stabilizing agents in vitro at low temperature. Addition of CuCl2 could stimulate AMO activity in vitro. The enzyme was stable in the temperature range of 4–15°C with less than 9% change in its activity. The optimal activity temperature was 15°C. Above 20°C, the enzyme completely lost its activity. The enzyme activity was stable when stored at 4°C for five days, at 10°C for two days, and at 15°C for one day. This study purified a highly pure AMO from a heterotrophic nitrifier Acinetobacter sp. for the first time.

Monomer-Monomer Interactions Propagate Structural Transitions Necessary for Pore Formation by the Cholesterol-dependent Cytolysins

The assembly of the cholesterol-dependent cytolysin (CDC) oligomeric pore complex requires a complex choreography of secondary and tertiary structural changes in domain 3 (D3) of the CDC monomer structure. A point mutation was identified in the archetype CDC, perfringolysin O, that blocks detectable D3 structural changes and traps the membrane-bound monomers in an early and reversible stage of oligomer assembly. Using this and other mutants we show that specific D3 structural changes are propagated from one membrane-bound monomer to another. Propagation of these structural changes results in the exposure of a β-strand in D3 that allows it to pair and form edge-on interactions with a second β-strand of a free membrane-bound monomer. Pairing of these strands establishes the final geometry of the pore complex and is necessary to drive the formation of the β-barrel pore. These studies provide new insights into how structural information is propagated between membrane-bound monomers of a self-assembling system and the interactions that establish the geometry of the final pore complex.

Islet amyloid polypeptide demonstrates a persistent capacity to disrupt membrane integrity

Amyloid fiber formation is correlated with pathology in many diseases, including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and type II diabetes. Although β-sheet-rich fibrillar protein deposits define this class of disorder, increasing evidence points toward small oligomeric species as being responsible for cell dysfunction and death. The molecular mechanism by which this occurs is unknown, but likely involves the interaction of these species with biological membranes, with a subsequent loss of integrity. Here, we investigate islet amyloid polypeptide, which is implicated in the loss of insulin-secreting cells in type II diabetics. We report the discovery of oligomeric species that arise through stochastic nucleation on membranes and result in disruption of the lipid bilayer. These species are stable, result in all-or-none leakage, and represent a definable protein/lipid phase that equilibrates over time. We characterize the reaction pathway of assembly through the use of an experimental design that includes both ensemble and single-particle evaluations. Complexity in the reaction pathway could not be satisfied using a two-state description of membrane-bound monomer and oligomeric species. We therefore put forward a three-state kinetic framework, one of which we conjecture represents a non-amyloid, non-β-sheet intermediate previously shown to be a candidate therapeutic target.

Molecular insights into amyloid regulation by membrane cholesterol and sphingolipids: common mechanisms in neurodegenerative diseases

Alzheimer, Parkinson and other neurodegenerative diseases involve a series of brain proteins, referred to as ‘amyloidogenic proteins’, with exceptional conformational plasticity and a high propensity for self-aggregation. Although the mechanisms by which amyloidogenic proteins kill neural cells are not fully understood, a common feature is the concentration of unstructured amyloidogenic monomers on bidimensional membrane lattices. Membrane-bound monomers undergo a series of lipid-dependent conformational changes, leading to the formation of oligomers of varying toxicity rich in β-sheet structures (annular pores, amyloid fibrils) or in α-helix structures (transmembrane channels). Condensed membrane nano- or microdomains formed by sphingolipids and cholesterol are privileged sites for the binding and oligomerisation of amyloidogenic proteins. By controlling the balance between unstructured monomers and α or β conformers (the chaperone effect), sphingolipids can either inhibit or stimulate the oligomerisation of amyloidogenic proteins. Cholesterol has a dual role: regulation of protein–sphingolipid interactions through a fine tuning of sphingolipid conformation (indirect effect), and facilitation of pore (or channel) formation through direct binding to amyloidogenic proteins. Deciphering this complex network of molecular interactions in the context of age- and disease-related evolution of brain lipid expression will help understanding of how amyloidogenic proteins induce neural toxicity and will stimulate the development of innovative therapies for neurodegenerative diseases.

Synthesis, transport activity, membrane localization, and dynamics of oligoester ion channels containing diphenylacetylene units

Four new linear oligoesters containing a diphenylacetylene unit were prepared by fragment coupling sequences and the ion channel forming ability of the compounds was investigated. Activity in vesicles was very strongly controlled by overall length; the longest compound was effectively inactive. Planar bilayer studies established that all compounds are able to form channels, but that regular step changes in conductance depend on the location of the diphenylacetylene unit within the oligoester and on the electrolyte. The intrinsic fluorescence of the diphenylacetylene unit was used to probe aggregation and membrane localization. Both monomer (320 nm) and excimer (380 nm) emissions are quenched by copper ions; quenching of the excimer emission from an aqueous aggregate is very efficient. Time-dependent changes in the intensities of monomer and excimer emission show slow transfer of diphenylacetylene units from an aqueous aggregate to a membrane-bound monomer with subsequent growth of emission from a membrane-bound excimer. The latter species is not quenched by aqueous copper ions. The implications of these species and processes for the mechanism of ion channel formation by simple oligoesters are discussed.

A covalent S‐F heterodimer of leucotoxin reveals molecular plasticity of β‐barrel pore‐forming toxins

Staphylococcal leucotoxins, leucocidins, and gamma-hemolysins are bicomponent beta-barrel pore-forming toxins (beta-PFTs). Their production is associated with several clinical diseases. They have cytotoxic activity due to the synergistic action of a class S component and a class F component, which are secreted as water-soluble monomers and form hetero-oligomeric transmembrane pores, causing the lysis of susceptible cells. Structural information is currently available for the monomeric S and F proteins and the homoheptamer formed by the related alpha-hemolysin. These structures illustrate the start and end points in the mechanistic framework of beta-PFT assembly. Only limited structural data exist for the intermediate stages, including hetero-oligomeric complexes of leucotoxins. We investigated the protein-protein interactions responsible for maintaining the final bipartite molecular architecture and describe here the high-resolution crystal structure and low-resolution solution structure of a site-specific cross-linked heterodimer of gamma-hemolysin (HlgA T28C-HlgB N156C), which were solved by X-ray crystallography and small angle X-ray scattering, respectively. These structures reveal a molecular plasticity of beta-PFTs, which may facilitate the transition from membrane-bound monomers to heterodimers.

A virtual instrumentation based protocol for the automated implementation of the inner field compensation method

Abstract One influential parameter which mediates interactions between many types of molecules and biological membranes stems from the lumped contributions of the transmembrane potential, dipole potential and the difference in the surface potentials on both sides of a membrane. With relevance to cell physiology, such electrical features of a biomembrane are prone to undergoing changes as a result of interactions with the aqueous surrounding. Among the most useful tools devoted to exploring changes of electrical parameters of a lipid membrane induced by certain extracellular ions, lipid composition, and embedded membrane peptides and proteins, are spectroscopic imaging and the inner field compensation (IFC) method. In this work we layout the principles of a fully computerized version of the IFC method, which makes it more readily available to users. As a direct application, we deployed this improved version of the IFC method to time-resolve changes induced by alamethicin monomers upon membrane dipole potential, following their aggregation within an artificial lipid membrane. Intriguingly, even prior crossing the membrane core, the membrane-bound alamethicin monomers are shown to significantly increase the dipole potential of the monolayer they reside in. Such data further emphasize the yet less-explored interplay between membrane-based protein and peptides, and the membrane dipole potential.

Assembly of the Bi-component Leukocidin Pore Examined by Truncation Mutagenesis

Staphylococcal leukocidin (Luk) and alpha-hemolysin (alphaHL) are members of the same family of beta barrel pore-forming toxins (betaPFTs). Although the alphaHL pore is a homoheptamer, the Luk pore is formed by the co-assembly of four copies each of the two distantly related polypeptides, LukF and LukS, to form an octamer. Here, we examine N- and C-terminal truncation mutants of LukF and LukS. LukF subunits missing up to nineteen N-terminal amino acids are capable of producing stable, functional hetero-oligomers with WT LukS. LukS subunits missing up to fourteen N-terminal amino acids perform similarly in combination with WT LukF. Further, the simultaneous truncation of both LukF and LukS is tolerated. Both Luk subunits are vulnerable to short deletions at the C terminus. Interestingly, the N terminus of the LukS polypeptide becomes resistant to proteolytic digestion in the fully assembled Luk pore while the N terminus of LukF remains in an exposed conformation. The results from this work and related experiments on alphaHL suggest that, although the N termini of betaPFTs may undergo reorganization during assembly, they are dispensable for the formation of functional pores.

The domains of a cholesterol-dependent cytolysin undergo a major FRET-detected rearrangement during pore formation

FRET measurements were used to determine the domain-specific topography of perfringolysin O, a pore-forming toxin, on a membrane surface at different stages of pore formation. The data reveal that the elongated toxin monomer binds stably to the membrane in an "end-on" orientation, with its long axis approximately perpendicular to the plane of the membrane bilayer. This orientation is largely retained even after monomer association to form an oligomeric prepore complex. The domain 3 (D3) polypeptide segments that ultimately form transmembrane beta-hairpins remain far above the membrane surface in both the membrane-bound monomer and prepore oligomer. Upon pore formation, these segments enter the bilayer, whereas D1 moves to a position that is substantially closer to the membrane. Therefore, the extended D2 beta-structure that connects D1 to membrane-bound D4 appears to bend or otherwise reconfigure during the prepore-to-pore transition of the perfringolysin O oligomer.

Synthesis, enhanced fusogenicity, and solid state NMR measurements of cross-linked HIV-1 fusion peptides.

In the HIV-1 gp41 and other viral fusion proteins, the minimal oligomerization state is believed to be trimeric with three N-terminal fusion peptides inserting into the membrane in close proximity. Previous studies have demonstrated that the fusion peptide by itself serves as a useful model fusion system, at least to the hemifusion stage in which the viral and target cell lipids are mixed. In the present study, HIV-1 fusion peptides were chemically synthesized and cross-linked at their C-termini to form dimers or trimers. C-terminal trimerization is their likely topology in the fusogenic form of the intact gp41 protein. The fusogenicity of the peptides was then measured in an intervesicle lipid mixing assay, and the assay results were compared to those of the monomer. For monomer, dimer, and trimer at peptide strand/lipid mol ratios between 0.0050 and 0.010, the final extent of lipid mixing for the dimer and trimer was 2-3 times greater than for the monomer. These data suggest that the higher local concentration of peptide strands in the cross-linked peptides enhances fusogenicity and that oligomerization of the fusion peptide in gp41 may enhance the rate of viral/target cell membrane fusion. For gp41, this effect is in addition to the role of the trimeric coiled-coil structure in bringing about apposition of viral and target cell membranes. NMR measurements on the membrane-associated dimeric fusion peptide were consistent with an extended structure at Phe-8, which is the same as has been observed for the membrane-bound monomer in the same lipid composition.

VacA from Helicobacter pylori: a hexameric chloride channel

VacA is a unique protein toxin secreted by the human pathogen Helicobacter pylori. At a neutral pH, the cytotoxin self-associates into predominantly dodecameric complexes. In this report, we show that at an acidic pH, VacA forms anion selective channels in planar phospholipid bilayers. Similar to several other chloride channels, the VacA channel exhibits a moderate selectivity for anions over cations (P Cl:P Na=4.2:1), inhibition by the blocker 4,4′-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2′-disulfonic acid and a permeability sequence, SCN −≫I −>Br −>Cl −>F, consistent with a ‘weak field strength’ binding site for the permeant anion. Single channel recordings reveal rapid transitions (486 s −1) between the closed state and a single open state of 24 pS (+60 mV, 1.5 M NaCl). Evaluation of the rate of increase in macroscopic current as well as atomic force microscopy suggest that this VacA channel is a hexamer, formed by the assembly of membrane-bound monomers. Not only are these VacA channels likely to play an important role in the pathological activity of this toxin, but they may also serve as a model system to further investigate the mechanism of anion selectivity in general.

Sterol−Polyamine Conjugates as Synthetic Ionophores

A design principle has been devised for the construction of sterol−polyamine conjugates that function as synthetic ionophores. For feasibility studies, a prototype (1) was synthesized from 3β-hydroxybisnor-5-cholenic acid via sequential activation of its carboxylic acid moiety, condensation with spermine, and sulfation of the 3β-hydroxyl group. Closely related analogues were also prepared in which the terminal amine group was acetylated (2), the 3β-hydroxyl group was left unsulfated (3), and each of the two remaining secondary amines was replaced with oxygen atoms (4). Incorporation of each conjugate into egg phosphatidylglycerol-based vesicles showed that 1 functions as an ionophore by discharging a pH difference across the vesicle membrane, but that 2, 3, and 4 do not. A kinetic analysis of the ionophoric activity of 1 has provided evidence that the majority of the conjugate exists as membrane-bound monomer and that dimers are the active species that are responsible for ion transport. Comparative experi...

Streptolysin O: a proposed model of allosteric interaction between a pore-forming protein and its target lipid bilayer.

Streptolysin O, a polypeptide of 571 amino acids, belongs to the family of thiol-activated toxins that permeabilize animal cell membranes. The protein binds as a monomer to membrane cholesterol. Binding involves a conserved region close to the C-terminus and triggers subsequent polymerization into large arc- and ring-shaped structures surrounding pores of up to 30 nm. Besides the C-terminus, a distantly located region spanning residues 213-305 is involved in oligomerization and in membrane insertion. Here, we searched for conformational effects of monomer binding to the latter functionally important region. To this end, single cysteine substitution mutants were produced and derivatized with the polarity-sensitive fluorophore acrylodan. Fluorimetric measurements revealed that binding of the monomer to membranes is accompanied by distinct environmental changes at amino acid residues 218, 248, 266, and 277. Conspicuously, the environment of residues 218 and 266 became more hydrophilic, suggesting movement of these residues out of hydrophobic protein pockets. Upon oligomerization, further alterations in all side-chain environments were observed. The membrane-bound monomer thus differs in conformation from both the monomer in solution and the subunit of the oligomer. The putative binding site of the molecule is linked to remote domains involved in oligomerization and membrane insertion in an apparently allosteric fashion. It is proposed that allostery is responsible for restricting oligomerization to the membrane-bound state of the toxin.

Kinetics of streptolysin O self-assembly.

Streptolysin O is a member of a family of membrane-damaging toxins that bind to cell membranes containing cholesterol and then polymerize to form large pores. We have examined the kinetics of toxin action using 125I-labelled streptolysin O. Binding of toxin monomers to membranes displays first-order kinetics and is reversible; the rate of desorption from red cells shows a marked dependence on temperature. To study oligomerization, toxin was bound to erythrocytes at 0 degrees C. Oligomer formation was then triggered by a sudden temperature shift and stopped by solubilization of membranes with deoxycholate. While at moderately high streptolysin O concentrations oligomerization behaves as a reaction of second order, the kinetic pattern changes with increasing toxin concentration. We show that this can be accounted for by the assumption of a two-step reaction mechanism: two membrane-bound monomers first associate into a start complex, which then is rapidly extended by the sequential addition of further monomers up to the final oligomer size.

Kinetics of Streptolysin O Self‐Assembly

Streptolysin O is a member of a family of membrane‐damaging toxins that bind to cell membranes containing cholesterol and then polymerize to form large pores. We have examined the kinetics of toxin action using 125I‐labelled streptolysin O. Binding of toxin monomers to membranes displays first‐order kinetics and is reversible; the rate of desorption from red cells shows a marked dependence on temperature. To study oligomerization, toxin was bound to erythrocytes at 0°C. Oligomer formation was then triggered by a sudden temperature shift and stopped by solubilization of membranes with deoxycholate. While at moderately high streptolysin O concentrations oligomerization behaves as a reaction of second order, the kinetic pattern changes with increasing toxin concentration. We show that this can be accounted for by the assumption of a two‐step reaction mechanism: two membrane‐bound monomers first associate into a start complex, which then is rapidly extended by the sequential addition of further monomers up to the final oligomer size.