European Member States Research Articles

On Some Aspects of European Security and Defence in the Context Of War in Ukraine

The European security environment is currently significantly affected by Russian aggression against Ukraine. However, right from the start of the war, the European Union and its member states acted decisively, they unequivocally condemned the Russian invasion of Ukraine and began to help it politically, economically, humanitarianly and by supplying military equipment, weapons, ammunition, and training members of the Ukrainian armed forces. And although no European member state of the European Union or the North Atlantic Alliance has been attacked, the ongoing conflict negatively affects European stability and disrupts the European security and defence system. That is also why the authors, using relevant scientific methods and approaches within the framework of interdisciplinary research, deal in the article with some selected aspects of European security and defence in the context of the conflict in Ukraine. They point out how Russian aggression has influenced discussions about the roles of the European Union in ensuring security and defence on the European continent, shed light on the Union's security and defence policy, deal with issues of European strategic autonomy and related relations between the EU and NATO, and at the end of the article indicate challenges, which are closely related to European security and defence in the context of the war in Ukraine.

Factors to consider for the implementation of a municipal scheme for the separate collection of textile waste

The textile industry is one of the largest worldwide and also one responsible for important environmental impacts. In this context, it is mandatory for European Member States to implement municipal schemes for the separate collection of textile waste by January 2025. The municipality of Cascais, in Portugal, was selected as a case study to determine the factors to consider when implementing it. A field survey was carried out to validate the existing collection points (CP) for used clothing, showing that 0.98 CP are available per km2, with 1 CP per 2,254 residents. In addition, interviews with stakeholders demonstrated that: cooperation between entities is missing, although charities have been working in the field for several years with good results; there is the absence of data about the amount of used clothing collected; and less than 50% of used clothing collected is suitable for reuse. Furthermore, a questionnaire was submitted to the residents, separating the sample into frequent users and non-users or infrequent users of CP. The results show that residents, predominantly, suggest that more equipment must be made available. Also, awareness campaigns ought to focus on clarifying uncertainties about the waste collection services, in general, and for the separate collection of textile waste, particularly, because doubts persist. Neither group is entirely sure about the destination of the used clothes donated and, in this case, it is important to reinforce information leading to confidence in its use, to avoid, for instance, households storing unused clothes, hindering their reuse.

The working conditions of non-professional magistrates and the European concept of ‘worker’

This article provides an overview of the legislation on the status and working conditions of the different categories of non-professional magistrates, as utilised by the judiciary administration of European Member States. In this regard, a distinction is made between ‘lay judges’, non-professional judges cooperating in a judicial process on the basis of their perspective as normal citizens, and ‘honorary judges’, who cooperate in the adjudication with their specialist knowledge and experiences. Through the lens of the CJEU's ruling in UX, the article also provides an insight into whether, on the basis of the reported legislation, any particular category of honorary judges is susceptible of falling within the European concept of ‘worker’.

Preserving the Past, Enabling the Future: Assessing the European Policy on Access to Archives in the Digital Age

Abstract In this study we investigate the implementation and challenges of accessing archives in the digital age. Through an online survey and expert interviews, data were collected from archival institutions, professional users, and civil society organizations in all Council of Europe member states. The findings reveal that digitization has had a positive impact on document accessibility, providing convenience, reducing workload, and improving user access. However, only a small portion of archival holdings have been digitized, highlighting the need for further efforts in this area. Data protection and copyright present significant obstacles, with the European General Data Protection Regulation leading to access restrictions and legal uncertainties. Preservation, interoperability, and organization of records pose challenges in the digital realm, and while artificial intelligence shows promise in automating metadata creation and identifying sensitive materials, concerns about algorithmic biases and the need for additional checks are highlighted. To enhance accessibility, user-friendly interfaces, cooperation among memory preserving institution, and outreach to new user groups are crucial, which can ensure the effective preservation and accessibility of digital collections in the digital age. We provide insights for policy-making and archival institutions in navigating the evolving landscape of accessibility.

East-Central Europe: The Young and The Far-Right

Abstract: Scholars are increasingly concerned that youth political apathy is a risk to liberal democracy. The issue of youth apathy is particularly pronounced in East-Central Europe—a region that has recently experienced sharp democratic decline. Across the EU member states of East-Central Europe, the share of youth that report complete disinterest in politics has doubled in the last decade. This is not an artifact of youth dissatisfaction with their nation's democracy. Rather, it is explained by ideological cross-pressures. East-Central Europe's apathetic youth hold a unique set of values that do not map onto party platforms. Unlike older generations, they are profoundly pro-EU and embrace certain aspects of liberalism, including gay rights. They are also significantly less religious. However, they are increasingly unfriendly toward immigration and multiculturalism. Compared to their politically engaged peers, East-Central Europe's apathetic youth also value democratic governance less. If they were to be politically mobilized, there is little reason to believe they would stabilize liberal democracy.

Spatial Analysis of High-Tech Export Performance of the Eastern European Member States of the EU

Some Central and East European countries have integrated into the European Union after 2004 and followed free market economy principles. This paper studies the spatial spillovers effects of high-tech export, Gross Domestic Product per capita, research and development expenditure, number of research and development full time equivalent, and technology accumulation among European Union member Central and East European countries over the period 2007-2020 by using spatial panel estimation models. The main purpose of the paper is to investigate whether high-tech export of European Union member Central and East European countries has a dependency and interaction with each other after EU membership. The estimation results of spatial panel model results reveal that an increment in high-tech exports of adjacent countries increases the high-tech exports of other regional countries. Our results also provide evidence on Gross Domestic Product per capita, and research and development expenditure of European Union member transition economies have positive and significant impacts on high-tech exports of those countries.

A harmonized Danube basin-wide multi-compartment concentration database to support inventories of micropollutant emissions to surface waters

BackgroundThe European Water Framework Directive foresees the establishment of emission inventories for micropollutants (MP) to facilitate an evidence-based development of mitigation measures. Regionalized pathway analysis constitutes a moderately data-intensive approach to quantify the contribution of different pathways to the total pollution of surface waters. So far, only few European member states have created an inventory that includes diffuse pathways. The fundamental basis to enable it is an accessible, well-structured and harmonized database with data on the concentration of MPs in multiple compartments, such as soils, groundwater, atmospheric deposition and urban systems. Combined with the water and suspended substance balance in river basins, such data enables the estimation of emission loads via specific pathways. In the Danube River Basin, but in general in Europe, a public data management platform with such scope and criteria is still lacking.ResultsWe collected and harmonized MP measurements across multiple compartments and countries together with key metadata, harmonized and combined them into a new database. The resulting tool, available for download, facilitates the assessment of current data availability, in terms of quantity and quality. For example, while the majority of available data stems from groundwater and surface water, other highly relevant compartments are scarcely represented. By examining differences in MP concentration level across compartments, the database can lead to understand the relevance of specific emission pathways and thus to prioritize data-retrieval and calculation efforts in modelling applications. Selected examples show how to exploit the metadata associated to the measurements to extrapolate the results to regions not covered by specific monitoring programmes. For example, PFAS concentrations in treated wastewater show significant dependence on the design capacity of the treatment plant.ConclusionsThis study showcases how such database can support the setup of emission inventories, guide data providers and national authorities in prioritizing the allocation of resources for new surveys and in optimizing their national data collection and management systems. The process tested showed a great need for enhanced data literacy across countries and institutions to increase data availability and quality to secure the exploitation of the full information potential generated via monitoring programmes.

Measurement of Accident Risk and a Case Study from Hungary

For the cost-benefit analysis of road safety measures, it is essential to estimate the national value of statistical life. By calculating the updated values, it is possible to assess the aggregate national value of statistical life for road traffic crashes, thereby also characterizing the road safety situation in the country. It is important that the values set and the methods used are compatible with the practices of the European Member States. It must be stressed that updating the values is of major importance both for the cost-benefit analysis of the various road safety measures and for raising public and decision-makers' awareness of the huge losses. The full identification and use of loss figures is an important element of road safety. In this article we present possible methods for estimating the value of statistical life.

Trends in abundance and occupancy of the protected water beetle Graphoderus bilineatus in the Netherlands

The European Habitats Directive prescribes Member States to report on trends in abundance and distribution of protected species. One of these species is Graphoderus bilineatus (De Geer, 1774), a middle-sized predaceous aquatic beetle, listed in Annex II and IV of the Habitats Directive. In the Netherlands, a monitoring scheme for this species has been set up to assess the national trend as well as the trend in the national Natura2000 sites. In this scheme, a selection of 1 km2 squares is surveyed in cycles of six years using a standardized field method by professional fieldworkers. In each selected square, five locations were sampled per annum (September–October) by two different observers using hand netting. The data of the first two rounds (2011–2016 and 2017–2022) have been analysed using both an occupancy model and a Poisson GLMM. We found evidence of a declining trend in occupancy as well as in population size. The decreases were stronger outside than within Natura2000 sites and also stronger than those of three other beetle species that are often found together with G. bilineatus. In addition, considerable differences between observers were detected in the data, despite the application of a standardized field method.Implications for insect conservationGraphoderus bilineatus is declining and the decline is stronger outside Natura2000 sites then within, most likely due to differences in the development of water quality, vegetation structure and water management. Further research is required to identify the exact causes of the decline; however water quality improvement seems essential to turn the tide. The study also shows the benefits of a monitoring scheme for trend assessments. The recent decline would probably not have been noticed based on distribution data alone.

Asymmetric patterns in territorial cooperation between core and periphery: The participation of Central and Eastern Europe in transnational and interregional cooperation programmes

AbstractThe study deals with the issue of core–periphery relations in the European Union, investigating its patterns in relation to the participation of Central and Eastern European (CEE) member states in European Territorial Cooperation (ETC) programmes between 2007 and 2020. Core–periphery patterns do exist in the European space, where besides the North‐Western core (‘Core’), there are two distinct peripheries, CEE and Southern Europe. The peripheral position is reflected in the weak performance of CEE in European‐wide RDI networks subsidised by the EU. On the basis of the KEEP database, the study analyses the signs of core–periphery relations by identifying whether there is asymmetry in the participation of CEE and Core countries in cooperation projects under the transnational (INTERREG B) and interregional (INTERREG C) strands (together, TI) of ETC. The findings of the study show that there is a significant difference in the forms of involvement of actors from North‐Western Europe and CEE in the TI programmes. Actors from CEE countries are very motivated to become involved in TI projects. However, they are significantly underrepresented in lead partner positions, especially in funding. The study's results suggest that participation activity patterns are significantly asymmetric in TI programmes, showing signs of a core–periphery dynamic even in such place‐based, cohesion‐oriented programmes. The consequence is that the articulation of geographic characteristics, special needs and issues associated with CEE is limited as they play a rather adaptive and imitating role in those territorial cooperation programmes that are influential in discourses and policies about territorial development in the European arena.

Energy intensity of the economy as a variable to measure the energy efficiency of a country: comparison between European member states

When renewable energies were included in the energy policies of the EU partners, a target was set for 2020; 20% of the energy production in the member states should be renewable. However, with the beginning of the economic crisis in 2007, growth forecasts were not met; there was an overcapacity in certain countries, which meant that the energy situation had to be reconsidered to develop a stronger, more consolidated interconnection among member states and therefore ensure a secure quality supply, in which the technical and financial management of the system is balanced and there is less dependence on foreign energy. Supporting a mix of energy sources based on a high penetration of renewables is putting pressure on the electricity tariffs. Hence, renewables should be promoted but without negatively affecting the competitiveness of countries. In a recession, efficiency indicators, not growth at any price must be controlled. Therefore, a key indicator to be considered is the Energy Intensity of the Economy that compares the total primary energy consumption and the GDP. Any discussion of energy strategy should focus on three fundamental parameters: security of supply, environmental sustainability and economic efficiency. The energy policies of EU countries are based on these three key areas.

Biosafety Issues in Patient Transport during COVID-19: A Case Study on the Portuguese Emergency Services.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, first responders faced significant biosafety challenges, especially while handling patient transport, potentially exposing them to infection. The PANDEM-2 (European project on pandemic preparedness and response) project, funded by the Horizon 2020 program, sought to investigate the challenges confronting Emergency Medical Systems throughout the EU. First responders from Portugal's National Institute of Medical Emergency (INEM) were considered as a representative operational model of the national first responder agencies of European member states because they played a critical role during the COVID-19 pandemic. As a result, they were asked to complete an online survey about their COVID-19 pandemic-related professional activities. The survey focused on their perspectives on current biosafety guidelines and their operational practices. It covered opinions on existing protocols, technical concerns during patient transport, and issues after the patients arrived at the hospital. The key findings revealed concerns about risk assessment, the inadequacy of guidelines, and disparities in equipment access. This survey emphasizes the importance of developing streamlined, adaptable biosafety protocols, better coordination between prehospital and in-hospital services, and the development of scalable, cost-effective biosafety solutions. Based on our findings, we propose improvements to national and European biosafety directives and advocate for streamlined adaptation during pandemics.

Nutritional composition of ultra-processed plant-based foods in the out-of-home environment: a multi-country survey with plant-based burgers.

Ultra-processed plant-based foods, such as plant-based burgers, have gained in popularity. Particularly in the out-of-home (OOH) environment, evidence regarding their nutritional profile and environmental sustainability is still evolving. Plant-based burgers available at selected OOH sites were randomly sampled in Amsterdam, Copenhagen, Lisbon and London. Plant-based burgers (patty, bread and condiment) (n 41) were lab analysed for their energy, macronutrients, amino acids and minerals content per 100 g and serving and were compared with reference values. For the plant-based burgers, the median values per 100 g were 234 kcal, 20·8 g carbohydrates, 3·5 g dietary fibre and 12·0 g fat, including 0·08 g TFS and 2·2 g SFA. Protein content was 8·9 g/100 g, with low protein quality according to amino acid composition. Median Na content was 389 mg/100 g, equivalent to 1 g salt. Compared with references, the median serving provided 31% of energy intake based on a 2000 kcal per day and contributed to carbohydrates (17-28%), dietary fibre (42%), protein (40%), total fat (48%), SFA (26%) and Na (54%). One serving provided 15-23% of the reference values for Ca, K and Mg, while higher contributions were found for Zn, Mn, P and Fe (30-67%). The ultra-processed plant-based burgers provide protein, dietary fibre and essential minerals and contain relatively high levels of energy, Na and total fats. The amino acid composition indicated low protein quality. The multifaceted nutritional profile of plant-based burgers highlights the need for manufacturers to implement improvements to better support healthy dietary habits, including reducing energy, Na and total fats.

The interconnectedness of European Banking and Shadow Banking for sustainable development goals: Insights from a network GVAR model

The goal of this study is to examine the interdependencies between the banking sector and shadow banking sector in selected European economies through the lens of sustainable development. Using a node-theoretic structure and a network GVAR model, we investigate the relationship between these sectors in a Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) framework. With this in mind, we examine the interlinkages between the various economies, using a network GVAR model so as to examine the potential dominance of some entities in the system. We conclude that in Europe there are two important financial systems operating simultaneously: one is the European system, where Germany plays a leading role, and the other is the United Kingdom. Analytically, a shock to the banking sector of the European economies will have an impact on the shadow banking sector of the other European economies, whereas shocks to the shadow banking assets of the individual European economies will not have a statistically significant impact on the banking assets of the other European countries. Moreover, shocks in the British banking system significantly impact the European shadow banking assets, while shocks in the shadow banking assets of European member states do not significantly affect the British GDP, suggesting the importance of cross-border collaborations in SDG efforts. By exploring the interdependencies between European banking and shadow banking sectors, this study contributes to the understanding of how financial systems can influence sustainable development. The findings emphasize the significance of fostering innovation across borders and leveraging international interactions to achieve the SDGs.

Testing data envelopment analysis models on the performance of European Union regions in sustainable waste management

Achieving a Circular Economy requires effective waste management. Monitoring the transformation path taken by the European Union (EU) and its Member States is crucial for assessing the impact and effectiveness of current European waste legislation. Even though numerous studies have shown positive performance and convergence in waste treatment, regional efficiency evaluation studies are still lacking. This research aims to benchmark the performance of municipal solid waste management in 167 regions – at level 2 of the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics - across European Member States during the period from 2008 to 2013. It looks to assess whether there is any positive convergence among these regions. The efficiency assessment employs four different Data Envelopment Analysis models. One of these models, the Benefit-of-Doubt, is a non-parametric approach and represents a special case within the Data Envelopment Analysis framework. Our findings indicate a yearly reduction in the coefficient of variation of 3.6%. Despite this progressive convergence, substantial differences in municipal solid waste management performance exist between EU-20 regions, even within the same country. Particularly, the analysis demonstrates that the best performers are registered in the Central and Northern EU regions, while the Eastern and Southern EU regions performed worse.

Upstream and downstream implementation arrangements in two‐level games. A focus on administrative simplification in the Italian National Recovery and Resilience Plan

AbstractThe onset of the European NGEU program represented for European member states a formidable opportunity for post‐pandemic recovery and yet a significant challenge at the same time: to receive and retain EU funds, each state had to promptly draw up a National Recovery and Resilience Plan—NRRP) and commit to a pressing timetable for its implementation. Regarding this challenge, the Italian government's response is a case in point: first, Italy is by far the largest beneficiary of NGEU funds; second, it has long had a reputation for being laggard in both the implementation of European directives and the spending of cohesion policy structural funds; and the formulation of the NRRP, the design of the governance in charge of its implementation, and implementation itself, occurred at a particular moment in the country's political life. Based on these premises, the article examines the upstream process by which the Italian government designed the implementation arrangements for the adoption of simplification policies under the NRRP and their downstream recalibration in the first two years, taking the implementation arrangements as the dependent variable. Analytically, the focus is on the interplay between the pressures of EU timetables and internal political dynamics, be they the legacy or strategic political considerations on the part of national policymakers, in determining the design and eventual re‐design of implementation arrangements as the plan unfolds.

EDUCATION, SCIENCE AND RESEARCH – KEY ELEMENTS SUPPORTING DYNAMICS OF ECONOMIC GROWTH IN THE EU IN THE PERIOD AFTER OVERCOMING THE EFFECTS OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC

Education, support of science and research currently represent one of the key factors supporting the dynamics of economic growth and development, both at the regional and global level. In the context of the indicated development, both within the European integration area and individual member states, there is a gradual implementation of projects focused on the reform of educational systems in order to increase the level and quality of education and its close connection with the needs of current social and economic practice. A highly qualified workforce possessing the necessary knowledge, competences and skills represents the core and at the same time the engine of supporting the growth and development of individual economic sectors and increasing the degree of their achieved competitiveness. Currently, almost every economic or social entity is confront with the need to constantly improve and respond flexibly to the needs and demands coming from its external environment, which leads to the need to innovate and improve internal structures and processes in relation to prevailing trends. The results of the educational process transformed into a qualified workforce can significantly help to correctly identify and appropriately and purposefully adapt to these trends. In this direction, the emphasis on the necessity to connect education with the field of science and research is predominant, which represents key factors supporting economic growth and increasing competitiveness. Within the European integration area and individual member states, these starting points are reflect in the entire spectrum of strategic documents implemented in their internal economic environment. For all of them, we can especially mention the current NextGenerationEU plan, in the implementation of which the key will be the use of new knowledge, the results of scientific research and research activities of various types and focus.

Innovation performance assessment of EU: A Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA)

Post-pandemically, innovation-driven growth has become a new trend in the evolution of society. Under these circumstances, evaluating the significant power of the world economy becomes necessary. Thus, the main aim of the present research endeavor is to analyze the innovation efficiency or inefficiency of European member states. By conducting a Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA), which assumes an input-output calculation of relative efficiency scores and constant returns to scale (CRS), it was found that 9 out of 27 European member states are efficient in maximizing output for given inputs. In terms of innovation, the sample of efficient countries consists of nine EU member states: Netherlands, Italy, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Malta, Romania, Germany, Sweden, and Slovakia. On the other hand, the most inefficient EU member states are Lithuania, Latvia, and Greece. Consequently, the model suggests that the inefficient EU countries can be seen to the most efficient countries as peers or benchmarks for improving their innovation level.

Comparison of the Process of Public Tender and Direct Award in Rail Passenger Transport in Slovakia

European member states have been opening to competition in passenger rail transport in recent years, while others are still on the road to liberalization. The European Commission has decided to address the significant decline in rail transport performance through its competitiveness and sustainable development policy. The most important can be considered the removal of barriers, harmonization, and harmonization of standards. Finally, it is a process of liberalization, the aim of which is to ensure non-discriminatory access to the railway network for other carriers (national and private) from any member state, as well as to make the functioning of the existing monopoly more accessible. railway companies more efficiently. The article is focused on a comparison of the form of concluding contracts for transport performance in the public interest in railway passenger transport in the Slovak Republic. The article describes the process of concluding contracts for transport services in the public interest in the form of direct assignment and in the form of a public tender. The comparison of the public tender process and direct submission is applied for the line Bratislava - Dunajská Streda - Komárno. The requirements of direct awarding and public tendering are compared, as well as their advantages and disadvantages, as well as the criteria for evaluating bids in public tendering or in the case of direct awarding. Four indicators that influence this process are also compared.

Criminalization of the immigration in the EU and protection of procedural rights

Serbia is a transit country for migrants on their way to the EU via the Western Balkan route. In 2015-2016, millions of migrants from Syria, Afghanistan, Iraq, Pakistan, and Somalia used the Western Balkan route to reach the EU countries. Serbia as the EU candidate country has to fulfil the requirement of cooperation with the EU in the area of managing migratory flows through efficient control of its borders jointly with the EU officers. In order for Serbia to reinforce the border management, it is important to understand the EU migration policy. Although the Tampere European Council Conclusion from 1999 and the European Agenda on Migration from 2015 declared the EU commitments to develop legal access to vulnerable individuals, in practice migration is perceived as a threat to security. As a result of this approach the preventive and repressive criminal law measures were introduced in the immigration law. The European member state authorities selectively use criminal law to achieve the migration policy goals. The criminal law measures that are applied across the EU are detention, arrest, police control, removal from the territory. However, there is criticism that these criminal law measures are not followed by criminal law guarantees, especially procedural rights and human rights protection instruments. The analysis is put in context of the Return Directive 2008/115 that sets the EU standards and procedures on return of illegally staying migrants. In this article the author analyses the effects of immigration criminalization and the development of the Court of Justice jurisprudence in relation to the procedural rights.