Meltwater Flux Research Articles

Impact of ice sheet meltwater fluxes on the climate evolution at the onset of the Last Interglacial

Abstract. Large climate perturbations occurred during the transition between the penultimate glacial period and the Last Interglacial (Termination II), when the ice sheets retreated from their glacial configuration. Here we investigate the impact of ice sheet changes and associated freshwater fluxes on the climate evolution at the onset of the Last Interglacial. The period from 135 to 120 kyr BP is simulated with the Earth system model of intermediate complexity LOVECLIM v.1.3 with prescribed evolution of the Antarctic ice sheet, the Greenland ice sheet, and the other Northern Hemisphere ice sheets. Variations in meltwater fluxes from the Northern Hemisphere ice sheets lead to North Atlantic temperature changes and modifications of the strength of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation. By means of the interhemispheric see-saw effect, variations in the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation also give rise to temperature changes in the Southern Hemisphere, which are additionally modulated by the direct impact of Antarctic meltwater fluxes into the Southern Ocean. Freshwater fluxes from the melting Antarctic ice sheet lead to a millennial timescale oceanic cold event in the Southern Ocean with expanded sea ice as evidenced in some ocean sediment cores, which may be used to constrain the timing of ice sheet retreat.

An early Pleistocene Mg/Ca‐δ 18 O record from the Gulf of Mexico: Evaluating ice sheet size and pacing in the 41‐kyr world

An early Pleistocene Mg/Ca‐δ ¹⁸ O record from the Gulf of Mexico: Evaluating ice sheet size and pacing in the 41‐kyr world

Cap carbonate platform facies model, Noonday Formation, SE California

The Neoproterozoic outcrop belt of the Death Valley region, California, preserves an oblique cross section of the Noonday Formation, a mixed carbonate-siliciclastic platform that hosts distinctive basal Ediacaran cap carbonate−affiliated sedimentary structures, stromatolite textures, and δ^(13)C_(carb) values. The Noonday platform encompasses two depositional sequences that reveal two cycles of relative sea-level change within strata conventionally considered to record a single, rapid, postglacial sea-level rise. In updip localities, facies of the first depositional sequence record the transition from a carbonate ramp to a stromatolite-bearing, “tubestone”-textured, reef-rimmed platform; downdip, localities seaward of the reefal escarpment variably preserve a thin and condensed onlapping foreslope wedge. Base-level fall exposed the reef crest to karstic dissolution and propagated submarine incised valleys into the seaward margin of the reef. Overlying strata record the backfilling of a submarine incised valley and reestablishment of a back-stepping, carbonate-dominated ramp prior to a second subaerial exposure event that defines the contact between the Noonday and Johnnie formations. We address the relative contributions of syndepositional tectonism and recovery from low-latitude deglaciation in dictating Noonday platform architecture and the intra−Noonday Formation sequence boundary. Noonday Formation deposition coincided with extension of the Laurentian margin during disaggregation of the Rodinian supercontinent. Within this framework, previous work has suggested that the intra−Noonday Formation sequence boundary records growth faulting that reinforced differential topography, uplifting reef-rimmed horsts—exposing the reef crest to karstic dissolution—and downdropping grabens. However, we trace the intra−Noonday Formation sequence boundary seaward of the reef crest and demonstrate that, for a time, wave base was situated downdip of the reef escarpment on putatively downdropped fault blocks. Thus, if the Noonday margin were undergoing extension, then the creation of the intra−Noonday Formation sequence boundary required a concomitant decrease in accommodation due, perhaps, to postglacial isostatic uplift attendant with low-latitude deglaciation. We speculate that Noonday Formation sequence architecture records (1) immediate deglacial flooding, (2) shoaling and exposure due to isostatic rebound induced by either a hiatus in meltwater flux or rapid ice-sheet collapse against a background of global deglaciation, and (3) resumed flooding following complete deglaciation. As rift-related tectonism could amplify or counter glacial isostasy, inferences of the amplitude of local postglacial sea-level change will require robust estimates of syndepositional extension across the Noonday margin.

Automated modelling of spatially-distributed glacier ice thickness and volume

Ice thickness distribution and volume are both key parameters for glaciological and hydrological applications. This study presents VOLTA (Volume and Topography Automation), which is a Python script tool for ArcGISTM that requires just a digital elevation model (DEM) and glacier outline(s) to model distributed ice thickness, volume and bed topography. Ice thickness is initially estimated at points along an automatically generated centreline network based on the perfect-plasticity rheology assumption, taking into account a valley side drag component of the force balance equation. Distributed ice thickness is subsequently interpolated using a glaciologically correct algorithm. For five glaciers with independent field-measured bed topography, VOLTA modelled volumes were between 26.5% (underestimate) and 16.6% (overestimate) of that derived from field observations. Greatest differences were where an asymmetric valley cross section shape was present or where significant valley infill had occurred. Compared with other methods of modelling ice thickness and volume, key advantages of VOLTA are: a fully automated approach and a user friendly graphical user interface (GUI), GIS consistent geometry, fully automated centreline generation, inclusion of a side drag component in the force balance equation, estimation of glacier basal shear stress for each individual glacier, fully distributed ice thickness output and the ability to process multiple glaciers rapidly. VOLTA is capable of regional scale ice volume assessment, which is a key parameter for exploring glacier response to climate change. VOLTA also permits subtraction of modelled ice thickness from the input surface elevation to produce an ice-free DEM, which is a key input for reconstruction of former glaciers. VOLTA could assist with prediction of future glacier geometry changes and hence in projection of future meltwater fluxes.

Evolution of moisture transport to the western U.S. during the last deglaciation

AbstractWe investigate climate dynamics and teleconnections governing moisture transport to the western U.S. during past warm and cool intervals of the last deglaciation using paleoclimate simulations of the Bølling warm (~14 ka) and Younger Dryas cool (~12 ka) events. Results suggest that the waning continental ice sheet weakened atmospheric pressure centers in the region leading to a progression from a more sinuous to more zonal Pacific winter storm track throughout the deglaciation. Furthermore, variations in meltwater flux to the Atlantic influenced the meridional temperature gradient over the Pacific and thereby modulated storm track intensity. Changing sinuosity of the storm track may be reflected in broad increases in modeled δ18Oprecip and observed δ18Ospeleothem values from the western U.S. over the last deglaciation, whereas abrupt δ18Ospeleothem shifts are dynamically consistent with the response of storm track intensity to variations in meltwater flux to the Atlantic.

Flocculated meltwater particles control Arctic land-sea fluxes of labile iron.

Glacial meltwater systems supply the Arctic coastal ocean with large volumes of sediment and potentially bioavailable forms of iron, nitrogen and carbon. The particulate fraction of this supply is significant but estuarine losses have been thought to limit the iron supply from land. Here, our results reveal how flocculation (particle aggregation) involving labile iron may increase horizontal transport rather than enhance deposition close to the source. This is shown by combining field observations in Disko Fjord, West Greenland, and laboratory experiments. Our data show how labile iron affects floc sizes, shapes and densities and consequently yields low settling velocities and extended sediment plumes. We highlight the importance of understanding the flocculation mechanisms when examining fluxes of meltwater transported iron in polar regions today and in the future, and we underline the influence of terrestrial hotspots on the nutrient and solute cycles in Arctic coastal waters.

Seasonal Changes in Fe along a Glaciated Greenlandic Fjord

Greenland’s ice sheet is the second largest on Earth, and is under threat from a warming Arctic climate. An increase in freshwater discharge from Greenland has the potential to strongly influence the composition of adjacent water masses with the largest impact on marine ecosystems likely to be found within the glaciated fjords. Here we demonstrate that physical and chemical estuarine processes within a large Greenlandic fjord are critical factors in determining the fate of meltwater derived nutrients and particles, especially for non-conservative elements such as Fe. Concentrations of Fe and macronutrients in surface waters along Godthabsfjord, a southwest Greenlandic fjord with freshwater input from 6 glaciers, changed markedly between the onset and peak of the meltwater season due to the development of a thin (<10 m), outflowing, low-salinity surface layer. Dissolved (<0.2 µm) Fe concentrations in meltwater entering Godthabsfjord (200 nM), in freshly melted glacial ice (mean 38 nM) and in surface waters close to a land terminating glacial system (80 nM) all indicated high Fe inputs into the fjord in summer. Total dissolvable (unfiltered at pH <2.0) Fe was similarly high with concentrations always in excess of 100 nM throughout the fjord and reaching up to 5.0 µM close to glacial outflows in summer. Yet, despite the large seasonal freshwater influx into the fjord, Fe concentrations near the fjord mouth in the out-flowing surface layer were similar in summer to those measured before the meltwater season. Furthermore, turbidity profiles indicated that sub-glacial particulate Fe inputs may not actually mix into the outflowing surface layer of this fjord. Emphasis has previously been placed on the possibility of increased Fe export from Greenland as meltwater fluxes increase. Here we suggest that in-fjord processes may be effective at removing Fe from surface waters before it can be exported to coastal seas.

Bulk meltwater flow and liquid water content of snowpacks mapped using the electrical self-potential (SP) method

Abstract. Our ability to measure, quantify and assimilate hydrological properties and processes of snow in operational models is disproportionally poor compared to the significance of seasonal snowmelt as a global water resource and major risk factor in flood and avalanche forecasting. We show here that strong electrical self-potential fields are generated in melting in situ snowpacks at Rhone Glacier and Jungfraujoch Glacier, Switzerland. In agreement with theory, the diurnal evolution of self-potential magnitudes ( ∼ 60–250 mV) relates to those of bulk meltwater fluxes (0–1.2 × 10−6 m3 s−1) principally through the permeability and the content, electrical conductivity and pH of liquid water. Previous work revealed that when fresh snow melts, ions are eluted in sequence and electrical conductivity, pH and self-potential data change diagnostically. Our snowpacks had experienced earlier stages of melt, and complementary snow pit measurements revealed that electrical conductivity ( ∼ 1–5 × 10−6 S m−1) and pH ( ∼ 6.5–6.7) as well as permeabilities (respectively ∼ 9.7 × 10−5 and ∼ 4.3 × 10−5 m2 at Rhone Glacier and Jungfraujoch Glacier) were invariant. This implies, first, that preferential elution of ions was complete and, second, that our self-potential measurements reflect daily changes in liquid water contents. These were calculated to increase within the pendular regime from ∼ 1 to 5 and ∼ 3 to 5.5 % respectively at Rhone Glacier and Jungfraujoch Glacier, as confirmed by ground truth measurements. We conclude that the electrical self-potential method is a promising snow and firn hydrology sensor owing to its suitability for (1) sensing lateral and vertical liquid water flows directly and minimally invasively, (2) complementing established observational programs through multidimensional spatial mapping of meltwater fluxes or liquid water content and (3) monitoring autonomously at a low cost. Future work should focus on the development of self-potential sensor arrays compatible with existing weather and snow monitoring technology and observational programs, and the integration of self-potential data into analytical frameworks.

Implications for post-comminution processes in subglacial suspended sediment using coupled radiogenic strontium and neodymium isotopes

Enhanced physical weathering rates in subglacial systems promote high levels of comminution, transport, and deposition of fine-grained sediment within the subglacial drainage network. The impact of shifts in sediment loads from variations in meltwater flux, and their effects on downstream ecosystems, remains poorly quantified and places a fundamental importance on our ability to characterize subglacial depositional environments. Here, for the first time, we assess the seasonal evolution of the subglacial suspended sediment using coupled radiogenic strontium (87Sr/86Sr) and neodymium (143Nd/144Nd) isotopic ratios with elemental ratios and in situ measurements. Weathering rates in fluvial and riverine systems have been traditionally assessed using radiogenic isotopic tracers: 143Nd/144Nd ratios relate to the crustal age whereas 87Sr/86Sr ratios relate to age and preferential mineral dissolution. Thus relative shifts in these ratios will allow us to characterize distinct sediment transport networks. We apply this technique to the Lemon Creek Glacier (LCG), Alaska, USA, and to the Athabasca Glacier (AG), Alberta, CA. At the LCG, the 143Nd/144Nd values range from εNd of −4.6 (0.9) to −8.7 (0.2), which suggests a poorly mixed sediment flux. However, the greatest period of variability may correlate with the drainage of a supraglacial lake and suggests caution should be exerted in time-scale 143Nd/144Nd provenance studies that may be affected by climatic disturbances. In contrast, limited variation is observed within the AG 143Nd/144Nd seasonal record. A consistent, direct relation between the Rb/Sr elemental ratio and the 87Sr/86Sr ratio proves interesting as it enables us to unravel incongruent weathering trends in the radiogenic Sr record. Correlation between the 87Sr/86Sr and total discharge suggests that the process is partially controlled by mantling of the bedrock, which can be detected using post-comminution ages. While the subglacial structure may be enabled by the subglacial till beneath the AG, our study supports the use of Sr-Nd as a new proxy in the subglacial environment.

Plastic bed beneath Hofsjökull Ice Cap, central Iceland, and the sensitivity of ice flow to surface meltwater flux

AbstractThe mechanical properties of glacier beds play a fundamental role in regulating the sensitivity of glaciers to environmental forcing across a wide range of timescales. Glaciers are commonly underlain by deformable till whose mechanical properties and influence on ice flow are not well understood but are critical for reliable projections of future glacier states. Using synoptic-scale observations of glacier motion in different seasons to constrain numerical ice flow models, we study the mechanics of the bed beneath Hofsjökull, a land-terminating ice cap in central Iceland. Our results indicate that the bed deforms plastically and weakens following incipient summertime surface melt. Combining the inferred basal shear traction fields with a Coulomb-plastic bed model, we estimate the spatially distributed effective basal water pressure and show that changes in basal water pressure and glacier accelerations are non-local and non-linear. These results motivate an idealized physical model relating mean basal water pressure and basal slip rate wherein the sensitivity of glacier flow to changes in basal water pressure is inversely related to the ice surface slope.

Surface and sub-surface multi-proxy reconstruction of middle to late Holocene palaeoceanographic changes in Disko Bugt, West Greenland

We present new surface water proxy records of meltwater production (alkenone derived), relative sea surface temperature (diatom, alkenones) and sea ice (diatoms) changes from the Disko Bugt area off central West Greenland. We combine these new surface water reconstructions with published proxy records (benthic foraminifera - bottom water proxy; dinocyst assemblages – surface water proxy), along with atmospheric temperature from Greenland ice core and Greenland lake records. This multi-proxy approach allows us to reconstruct centennial scale middle to late Holocene palaeoenvironmental evolution of Disko Bugt and the Western Greenland coastal region with more detail than previously available.Combining surface and bottom water proxies identifies the coupling between ocean circulation (West Greenland Current conditions), the atmosphere and the Greenland Ice Sheet. Centennial to millennial scale changes in the wider North Atlantic region were accompanied by variations in the West Greenland Current (WGC). During periods of relatively warm WGC, increased surface air temperature over western Greenland led to ice sheet retreat and significant meltwater flux. In contrast, during periods of cold WGC, atmospheric cooling resulted in glacier advances.We also identify potential linkages between the palaeoceanography of the Disko Bugt region and key changes in the history of human occupation. Cooler oceanographic conditions at 3.5 ka BP support the view that the Saqqaq culture left Disko Bugt due to deteriorating climatic conditions. The cause of the disappearance of the Dorset culture is unclear, but the new data presented here indicate that it may be linked to a significant increase in meltwater flux, which caused cold and unstable coastal conditions at ca. 2 ka BP. The subsequent settlement of the Norse occurred at the same time as climatic amelioration during the Medieval Climate Anomaly and their disappearance may be related to harsher conditions at the beginning of the Little Ice Age.

REGULARITIES OF CONGELATION ICE DEVELOPMENT IN SUBGLACIAL LAKE VOSTOK

Petrographic studies performed on the continuous basis along the two ice cores obtained from holes 5G-1 and 5G-2 at Vostok Station has allowed to characterize with great details the evolution of the ice texture and fabric in the 232-m thick stratum of accreted ice formed from theLakeVostokwater. Conventionally the whole thickness of accreted ice is divided into two strata: lake ice 1 and lake ice 2. Lake ice 1 (3537–3618 m), formed in the sallow strait50 kmupstream of Vostok, is characterized by presence of disseminated mineral inclusions of Lake Vostok sediments, as well as of «water pockets» that represent frozen water inclusions trapped during the ice accretion. The latter constitute less than 1% of the total ice volume, their mean size is about0.5 cm. Gases trapped by «water pockets» during ice formation transform into crystalline inclusions of mixed gas hydrates. Accretion of lake ice 2 (3618–3769 m) proceeds in the deep part of the lake at a very small rate that does not assume trapping of liquid water inclusions and gases. Both strata of accreted ice are formed by orthotropic crystal growth from pure water. The main tendency in the evolution of accreted ice texture is growth of the mean crystal size with depth as the lake ice becomes younger towards the ice-water interface. The high-amplitude variations of crystal size and orientation observed around this general trend are shown to be linked with temporal and spatial variability of the supercooled melt-water flux from the northern part of the lake towards the ice formation site. The presence of supercooled water at the crystallization front supports persistent preferable growth of ice crystals with sub-horizontally oriented c-axes. The lack of supercooled water in turn support persistent growth of ice crystals with vertical or inclined with respect to the crystallization front c-axis orientation. It means that each of these preferred fabric orientations could serve as an indicator of intensity of melt water flux towards the ice formation site. After completing the isotope measurements on the 5G-2 ice core we plan to use the data on ice texture and fabric obtained in this study together with isotope data for thorough analysis of the peculiarities of water circulation in the southern part ofLakeVostok.

Sensitivity of glacier runoff projections to baseline climate data in the Indus River basin

Quantifying the contribution of glacier runoff to water resources is particularly important in regions such High Mountain Asia, where glaciers provide a large percentage of seasonal river discharge and support large populations downstream. In remote areas, direct field measurements of glacier melt rates are difficult to acquire and rarely observed, so hydro-glaciological modeling and remote sensing approaches are needed. Here we present estimates of glacier melt contribution to the Upper Indus watershed over the last 40 years using a suite of seven reanalysis climate datasets that have previously been used in hydrological models for this region, a temperature-index melt model and > 29,000 km2 of ice cover. In particular, we address the uncertainty in estimates of meltwater flux that is introduced by the baseline climate dataset chosen, by comparing the results derived from each. Mean annual glacier melt contribution varies from 8 km3 yr-1 and 169 km3 yr-1, or between 4-78% of the total annual runoff in the Indus, depending on temperature dataset applied. Under projected scenarios of an additional 2-4°C of regional warming by 2100 AD, we find annual meltwater fluxes vary by >200% depending on the baseline climate dataset used and, importantly, span a range of positive and negative trends. Despite significant differences between climate datasets and the resulting spread in meltwater fluxes, the spatial pattern of melt is highly correlated and statistically robust across all datasets. This allows us to conclude with confidence that fewer than 10% of the >20,000 glaciers in the watershed contribute more than 80% of the total glacier runoff to the Indus. These are primarily large, low elevation glaciers in the Karakoram and Hindu Kush. Additional field observations to ground-truth modeled climate data will go far to reduce the uncertainty highlighted here and we suggest that efforts be focused on those glaciers identified to be most significant to water resources.

Sensitivity of the Southern Ocean to enhanced regional Antarctic ice sheet meltwater input

AbstractDespite advances in our understanding of the processes driving contemporary sea level rise, the stability of the Antarctic ice sheets and their contribution to sea level under projected future warming remains uncertain due to the influence of strong ice‐climate feedbacks. Disentangling these feedbacks is key to reducing uncertainty. Here we present a series of climate system model simulations that explore the potential effects of increased West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS) meltwater flux on Southern Ocean dynamics. We project future changes driven by sectors of the WAIS, delivering spatially and temporally variable meltwater flux into the Amundsen, Ross, and Weddell embayments over future centuries. Focusing on the Amundsen Sea sector of the WAIS over the next 200 years, we demonstrate that the enhanced meltwater flux rapidly stratifies surface waters, resulting in a significant decrease in the rate of Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) formation. This triggers rapid pervasive ocean warming (&gt;1°C) at depth due to advection from the original site(s) of meltwater input. The greatest warming is predicted along sectors of the ice sheet that are highly sensitized to ocean forcing, creating a feedback loop that could enhance basal ice shelf melting and grounding line retreat. Given that we do not include the effects of rising CO2—predicted to further reduce AABW formation—our experiments highlight the urgent need to develop a new generation of fully coupled ice sheet climate models, which include feedback mechanisms such as this, to reduce uncertainty in climate and sea level projections.

Potential positive feedback between Greenland Ice Sheet melt and Baffin Bay heat content on the west Greenland shelf

AbstractGreenland ice sheet meltwater runoff has been increasing in recent decades, especially in the southwest and the northeast. To determine the impact of this accelerating meltwater flux on Baffin Bay, we examine eight numerical experiments using an ocean‐sea ice model: Nucleus for European Modelling of the Ocean. Enhanced runoff causes shoreward increasing sea surface height and strengthens the stratification in Baffin Bay. The changes in sea surface height reduces the southward transport through the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and strengthens the gyre circulation within Baffin Bay. The latter leads to further freshening of surface waters as it produces a larger northward surface freshwater transport across Davis Strait. Increasing the meltwater runoff leads to a warming and shallowing of the west Greenland Irminger water on the northwest Greenland shelf. These warmer waters can now more easily enter fjords on the Greenland coast and thus provide additional heat to accelerate the melting of marine‐terminating glaciers.

Glacial meltwater from Greenland is not likely to be an important source of Fe to the North Atlantic

Recent work has shown that glaciers are a globally significant source of the micronutrient Fe to the ocean. Polar regions are particularly susceptible to climate change and have been subject to pronounced warming in the past few decades. In response to this warming, the volume of glacial meltwater runoff from Greenland has increased. This meltwater has a relatively high particulate and dissolved Fe content. Seasonal Fe limitation of marine ecosystems has been found in parts of the North Atlantic, so it has been proposed that increasing fluxes of Fe rich meltwater from Greenland to the North Atlantic could alleviate this Fe limitation and thereby increase marine primary production. However, here we use a synthesis of biogeochemical and physical oceanography studies to suggest that the physical circulation around Greenland does not favour direct export of dissolved or particulate Fe from inshore to offshore waters. The Fe budget in surface waters of the North Atlantic may therefore be insensitive to increasing meltwater fluxes from Greenland.

First-year land-fast Antarctic sea ice as an archive of ice shelf meltwater fluxes

Sampling beneath Antarctic ice shelves is sparse; therefore, tracking changes in ocean δ18O composition adjacent to ice shelves holds promise as an indicator of ice shelf basal melting. Sea ice archives of ice shelf–ocean interaction in particular could be important tools for future observational climate studies. Ocean δ18O values near the McMurdo Ice Shelf were reconstructed using observational data (sea ice δ18O, snow depth, and ice formation dates) from McMurdo Sound, Antarctica, by combining a recently revised version of an isotope fractionation model with an established thermodynamic sea ice model, resulting in improvements compared to previous approaches. Growth rates from the thermodynamic sea ice model were validated using direct growth rate measurements. That validation and supporting analysis indicated that a change was needed in ocean heat flux assumption from 0 W m−2 to around −13 W m−2 part way through the sea ice growth season. A well-constrained range (+1.84‰ to +2.21‰) of effective fractionation coefficients for sea ice was derived, along with a mean of 1.99‰. For the first time, reconstructed ocean δ18O values were validated using winter-long measurements of Antarctic near-surface water δ18O. Taking uncertainties into account, the reconstructed ocean δ18O values generally agreed to within ±0.2‰ with the measured ocean δ18O mean values. Results indicated an overall decrease in measured ocean δ18O during the winter, but this was not statistically significant given the uncertainties in the measurements. Although the method works, it currently has limited utility for determining the presence and scale of any step-changes in ocean δ18O composition associated with present day ice shelf basal melting. This is because the uncertainty of the reconstructed values (±0.2‰) is of the same magnitude as the expected change. Also, the requirement to parameterise the ocean heat flux is a barrier to the method being an entirely retrospective method (i.e., one requiring only data from the end of the sea ice growth season). In a future Antarctic scenario of increased basal melting of the ice shelves, the method may become more valuable in an Antarctic context. The method developed in this paper will be useful currently in the Arctic, because Arctic waters exhibit much larger fresh water fluxes.

The 1992 Farrington Lecture: Drumlin Bedforms and Related Ice-Marginal Depositional Systems in Ireland

The Irish drumlin bell comprises a wide morphological range of subglacial bedforms which are best developed in lowland zones located mainly in northern and western sectors of the island. Stratigraphic evidence suggests that drumlinisation occurred around 17ka B.P. in response to fast ice flow from major centres of inland ice dispersion onto the continental shelf. Well-defined moraines and morainal banks bordering the drumlin fields indicate that drumlinisation was accompanied by a high basal debris flux to ice sheet margins which was resedimented in a variety of subaquaeous settings. Field observations indicate that the fast ice flow responsible for streamlining and sediment moulding was closely associated with intense marine downdraw, a decrease in basal effective pressures and a general lowering of ice sheet profiles during deglaciation. Deglacial mechanisms of this type help to explain the very rapid termination of the last glacial cycle because downdraw ice-stream drainage basins must expand in area if pulling power lowers the surface faster than ice supply raises it. Sedimentary and structural variability within drumlins indicate that drumlin formation reflects not only a highly dynamic subglacial system but, in some cases, can be related to ice sheet history. The seven main facies associations which have been identified provide a window into a variety of depositional settings which contributed to drumlin formation and drumlinisation. They confirm that drumlins are not simple landforms but have a complex history related to changing glaciological states and ice sheet evolution. The final drumlin forms however are the result of a highly mobile flux of basal debris and meltwater directed subglacially towards ice sheet margins.

Reconciled freshwater flux into the Godthåbsfjord system from satellite and airborne remote sensing

As the rapid reduction in ice volume of the Greenland ice sheet (GrIS) continues, increased melt water flux from the GrIS enters the deep Greenlandic fjords. This increased freshwater flux may change the salinity and eventually the ecology of the fjords. Here, we present a case study in which we, from various remote-sensing data sets, estimate the freshwater flux from the GrIS into a specific fjord system, the Godthåbsfjord, in southwest Greenland. The area of the GrIS draining into Godthåbsfjord covers approximately 36,700 km2. The large areal extent and the multiple outlets from the GrIS hamper in situ observations. Here, we evaluate available data from remote sensing and find a drainage basin in rapid change. An analysis of data from the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellites shows a mean seasonal freshwater flux into Godthåbsfjord of 18.2 ± 1.2 Gt, in addition to an imbalance in the mass balance of the drainage basin from 2003 to 2013 of 14.4 ± 0.2 Gt year−1. Altimetry data from air and spaceborne missions also suggest rapid changes in the outlet glacier dynamics. We find that only applying data from the Ice, Cloud, and land Elevation Satellite (ICESat) mission the mass change of the Godthåbsfjord drainage basin is significantly underestimated. When including additional laser-altimetry surveys, to account for changes in the outlet glaciers elevation, not captured by ICESat, the altimetry data were able to reconcile the basin mass balance with the gravimetric estimate and provide a higher spatial resolution of the mass changes.

Physics of Climate Change: Harmonic and exponential processes from in situ ocean time series observations show rapid asymmetric warming.

Physics of Climate Change: Harmonic and exponential processes from in situ ocean time series observations show rapid asymmetric warming.