Melodic Contour Research Articles

Processing musical form: Behavioural and neurocognitive approaches

Simple melodies and short instrumental pieces largely unfold within the temporal limits of working memory. Within short time-spans (typically from 10 to 15 s), listeners can either subsume form parts into higher-order units (chunking process) or perceive them as sequential, and processes like these can happen while listening or in immediate retrospect. This study investigates the listeners’ chunking abilities as well as their assessment of coherence using two eight-measure theme types in AABB and ABAB forms. Double-letter labels (AA and BB) mark pattern similarity, while two-letter labels (AB) indicate pattern contrast. We measured the event-related brain responses (ERPs) while non-musicians listened to musical themes in real-time. Immediately after presentation, each piece of music had to be evaluated as either sequential or non-sequential (hierarchical). The rating results showed that ABAB compared to AABB forms were significantly more often judged as non-sequential (hierarchical). Independent of form type the tendency to chunk form parts seemed stronger when two aspects coincided: when rhythmical contrast between A-parts and B-parts was high, and when melodic contour was upward-downward. In contrast, the event-related potentials were insensitive to mental chunking processes. They merely reflected the brain’s responses to pattern structure. An anterior negative shift (anterior N300) was observed for immediate (AA) as well as for non-immediate repetition (ABA, ABAB) of similar form parts, suggesting pattern matching at phrase onsets on the basis of rhythmical sameness. To our knowledge, this study is the first neurocognitive approach to musical form perception.

Quantifying attentional modulation of auditory-evoked cortical responses from single-trial electroencephalography

Selective auditory attention is essential for human listeners to be able to communicate in multi-source environments. Selective attention is known to modulate the neural representation of the auditory scene, boosting the representation of a target sound relative to the background, but the strength of this modulation, and the mechanisms contributing to it, are not well understood. Here, listeners performed a behavioral experiment demanding sustained, focused spatial auditory attention while we measured cortical responses using electroencephalography (EEG). We presented three concurrent melodic streams; listeners were asked to attend and analyze the melodic contour of one of the streams, randomly selected from trial to trial. In a control task, listeners heard the same sound mixtures, but performed the contour judgment task on a series of visual arrows, ignoring all auditory streams. We found that the cortical responses could be fit as weighted sum of event-related potentials evoked by the stimulus onsets in the competing streams. The weighting to a given stream was roughly 10 dB higher when it was attended compared to when another auditory stream was attended; during the visual task, the auditory gains were intermediate. We then used a template-matching classification scheme to classify single-trial EEG results. We found that in all subjects, we could determine which stream the subject was attending significantly better than by chance. By directly quantifying the effect of selective attention on auditory cortical responses, these results reveal that focused auditory attention both suppresses the response to an unattended stream and enhances the response to an attended stream. The single-trial classification results add to the growing body of literature suggesting that auditory attentional modulation is sufficiently robust that it could be used as a control mechanism in brain–computer interfaces (BCIs).

Intonation of Ontario French in a Minority Setting: A Study Comparing Two Age Groups

This paper focuses on melodic aspect of French in a minority setting and presents a study of intonation based on text readings by eight females. With a methodology allowing for a close comparison of intonation, I am looking at whether the inventory and distribution of tonal patterns, and the phonetic realization of a rising melodic contour, vary depending on the speaker’s age. Results reveal a significantly higher proportion of falling contours in this dialect, compared to dialects in majority situations, and significant differences in contour realizations between two age groups.

Minimal effects of visual memory training on auditory performance of adult cochlear implant users

Auditory training has been shown to significantly improve cochlear implant (CI) users' speech and music perception. However, it is unclear whether posttraining gains in performance were due to improved auditory perception or to generally improved attention, memory, and/or cognitive processing. In this study, speech and music perception, as well as auditory and visual memory, were assessed in 10 CI users before, during, and after training with a nonauditory task. A visual digit span (VDS) task was used for training, in which subjects recalled sequences of digits presented visually. After the VDS training, VDS performance significantly improved. However, there were no significant improvements for most auditory outcome measures (auditory digit span, phoneme recognition, sentence recognition in noise, digit recognition in noise), except for small (but significant) improvements in vocal emotion recognition and melodic contour identification. Posttraining gains were much smaller with the nonauditory VDS training than observed in previous auditory training studies with CI users. The results suggest that posttraining gains observed in previous studies were not solely attributable to improved attention or memory and were more likely due to improved auditory perception. The results also suggest that CI users may require targeted auditory training to improve speech and music perception.

Spontaneous speech intonation in (European) Portuguese: an example of experimental analysis with a macrosyntactic view

Besides studies based on illocution criteria (Raso Mello, 2009), most studies on Portuguese intonation pertain mainly to read speech, and use for a large part either the autosegmental-metrical framework -- AM - (Frota al., 2007) or, for a small number, a phonosyntactic model (Martin, 1999, 2004). In papers pertaining to the last category, there is a clear assumption that the sentence prosodic structure is independent but associated to syntax. In this view, prosodic contours located on or around stressed syllables function as phonological markers of this prosodic structure. Experimental studies describe for example a high and rising melodic contour located on the first stressed syllable of a subject NP, and either a rising contour (on the stressed syllable) or a complex contour (falling on the stressed syllable and rising on the last syllable) of the last unit of a SN syntagm. Whereas this description is essentially compatible with those given in the AM framework, the validity of AM theory may be questionable if extended to non-prepared (spontaneous) speech. In such cases, a macrosyntactic approach proves to be an effective tool, as it envisions the sentence as a sequence of macrosegments, syntactically well formed in the classical sense, but whose relations of parataxis or dependency with each other are partially determined by the sentence prosodic structure. This paper presents a short example of analysis conducted in this framework, showing the interaction between macrosyntactic and prosodic structures, the latter operation (re)structuring the sequence of macrosegments organized (by definition) in a flat structure in the sentence.

Singing in the key of life: A study on effects of musical ear training after cochlear implantation.

This study investigated the effect of a 6-month one-to-one musical ear-training program on the perception of music, speech, and emotional prosody of deaf patients receiving a cochlear implant (CI). Eighteen patients who recently underwent cochlear implantation were assigned to either a musical ear-training group or a control group. The participants in the music group significantly improved in their overall music perception compared with the control group. In particular, their discrimination of timbre, melodic contour, and rhythm improved. Both groups significantly improved in their speech perception; thus, this effect cannot be specifically ascribed to music training. In contrast to the control group, the music group showed an earlier onset of progress in recognition of emotional prosody, whereas end-point performances were comparable. All participants completed the program and showed great enthusiasm for the musical ear training, particularly singing-related activities. If implemented as part of aural/oral rehabilitation therapy, the proposed musical ear-training program could form a valuable complementary method of auditory rehabilitation, and, in the long term, contribute to an improved general quality of life in CI users.Keywords: cochlear implants, music perception, music enjoyment, music training, music testingSupplemental materials: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0031140.suppA cochlear implant (CI) is a neural prosthesis that helps deaf people to hear. The implant operates by an external signal processor, which breaks up sound into different frequencies, converts these into electrical signals, and transmits them to an internal receiver through a radio-frequency link. The receiver passes the stimuli onto an implanted electrode array, which stimulates remaining auditory nerve fibers in the cochlea (Loizou, 1999). The auditory nerve is hereby activated, allowing sound signals to reach the brain's auditory system. The clinical impact of the evolution of CIs has been nothing less than extraordinary. With current implant technology and up-to-date sound-processing strategies, the average CI listener recognizes 80% of sentences and approximately 55% of monosyllabic words, in quiet listening conditions, after 12 months of practice with a unilateral CI; some users even achieve the capability of talking on the phone (Friesen, Shannon, Baskent, & Wang, 2001; Wilson & Dorman, 2007). The variability in implant outcome, however, is large, with duration of hearing loss (HL) and residual hearing as important predictors of the result (Cosetti & Waltzman, 2012; Lee et al., 2007; Summerfield & Marshall, 1995; Waltzman, Fisher, Niparko, & Cohen, 1995). With the considerable improvements made in CI technology with regard to speech perception, it is natural that many existing CI users express hopes of being able to enjoy music. Moreover, because music has played an essential role in many of these patients' cultural and social life before deafness, CI candidates' hope of retrieving music enjoyment is an important reason for choosing this treatment (Gfeller et al., 2000).For the majority of CI users, however, the music experience is disappointing. Surveys have shown that a majority of adult CI recipients' self-reported levels of music listening and enjoyment are significantly lower after than before implantation (Gfeller et al., 2000; Lassaletta et al., 2007; Looi & She, 2010; Mirza, Douglas, Lindsey, Hildreth, & Hawthorne, 2003). This reduced music appreciation is due to a general difficulty with perceiving complex acoustic stimuli, which also includes speech perception in conditions involving background noise or competing talkers. Be- cause of the limited number of available electrodes and the mis- match between the pulse-rate of the electrical impulses and the sound input frequency coupled with the dominance of temporal processing for low-frequency sound, the CI signal is unable to adequately code the spectrum of sound needed to perceive musical pitch and timbre. …

Melodic Contour Identification Training in Cochlear Implant Users with and without a Competing Instrument

For cochlear implant (CI) patients, music perception can be especially difficult when multiple instruments are played. The relatively poor spectro-temporal resolution does not allow CI patients access to pitch and timbre cues that may be used to segregate and stream competing melodies and instruments. Auditory training improves CI users' melodic pitch perception. Given the more difficult and more common listening condition of multi-instrument music, it may be more beneficial to train with multiple instruments than with a single instrument. In this study, CI subjects were trained to identify melodic contours. One group (“no masker”) trained while listening only to the target contours. The other group (“masker”) trained while listening to target contours presented with a competing masker. Before training, baseline melodic contour identification was measured with and without a masker; the timing, pitch, and timbre of the masker was systematically varied. Subjects trained at home for a total of 10 hours during the 1-month training period. Results showed that baseline performance was poorer with the masker than without, and that performance improved with both training methods. However, the magnitude of improvement was greater for the masker group, suggesting that the more difficult training provided better outcomes.

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Channel interaction limits melodic pitch perception in simulated cochlear implants

In cochlear implants (CIs), melodic pitch perception is limited by the spectral resolution, which in turn is limited by the number of spectral channels as well as interactions between adjacent channels. This study investigated the effect of channel interaction on melodic contour identification (MCI) in normal-hearing subjects listening to novel 16-channel sinewave vocoders that simulated channel interaction in CI signal processing. MCI performance worsened as the degree of channel interaction increased. Although greater numbers of spectral channels may be beneficial to melodic pitch perception, the present data suggest that it is also important to improve independence among spectral channels.

Competition, Cultural Geography, and Tonal Space in the Book of Madrigals L’amorosa Ero (1588)

Around 1587 the Brescian nobleman Count Marc’Antonio Martinengo di Villachiara, who was renowned for his political and military experience as well as competence in both music and poetry, wrote a madrigal text, set it to music, and sent it to seventeen composers in different parts of Italy. Published under the title of L’amorosa Ero (Brescia, 1588), the collection gives the opportunity to compare some of the most influential composers such as Marenzio, Luzzaschi, Ingegneri, Striggio, and many others. The first part of the article focuses on the historical background to this collection, with special attention given to the musical activities in Brescia and in other cities (Cremona, Verona, Parma, Turin, and Rome). Martinengo’s political and military career and the music patronage of his family are discussed in detail, followed by an in-depth survey of most of the composers of L’amorosa Ero (particularly Alfonso Ferabosco, Claudio Merulo, Marc’Antonio Ingegneri, and Antonio Morsolino) to unveil their personal relationships with Martinengo. The hierarchy of composers represented in the madrigal collection turns out to be quite elaborate and reflects their political relevance in their time. The second part of the article is dedicated to the musical content of the collection. Given that L’amorosa Ero consists of the compositional responses of multiple composers to the same text—which, moreover, they all set in the same mode—the collection offers a unique opportunity to compare composers’ styles. Starting with a close examination of Martinengo’s poem, including its formal and emotional aspects, we follow with a comparative analysis, restricted to the first section of eight emblematic madrigals by Martinengo, Fiorino, Bertani, Ingegneri, Marenzio, Zoilo, Giovannelli, and Luzzaschi. The main analytical tool is the definition of tonal space, that is to say a dynamic articulation of mode that emerges through the interaction of such elements as melodic contour and cadences. Our analysis shows that, despite the limitations of mode and text, the music of the collection is strikingly diverse, ranging from traditional to more innovative styles.

‘Nsumwinu’: meaning and role in the structural composition of melodies in the urban music of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

The examination of the inserted nsumwinu (singular - Kasumwinu), in the lyrics of popular songs in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), reveals hidden roles that are both musical and linguistic. Musically, the compositional technique of the melodic contour is derived from the observation of the semantic level of the language represented by the sequential pattern of tones on words that compose the kasumwinu. Linguistically, this sequential pattern of tones that determines the meaning of the word, must be faithfully observed in the music’s compositional process of the basic melodic contour, i.e., the linguistic tones dictate the direction of musical intervals, leaving the decision of the size of the interval to the creative discretion of the composer.1 This essay will reveal the linguistic significance and role of nsumwinu, in the urban music of the DRC, and to conclude that they provide the musical flexibility without altering the overall meaning of their intended message.

Melodic similarity among folk songs: An annotation study on similarity-based categorization in music

In this article we determine the role of different musical features for the human categorization of folk songs into tune families in a large collection of Dutch folk songs. Through an annotation study we investigate the relation between musical features, perceived similarity and human categorization in music. We introduce a newly developed annotation method which is used to create an annotation data set for 360 folk song melodies in 26 tune families. This dataset delivers valuable information on the contribution of musical features to the process of categorization which is based on assessing the similarity between melodies. The analysis of the annotation data set reveals that the importance of single musical features for assessing similarity varies both between and within tune families. In general, the recurrence of short characteristic motifs is most relevant for the perception of similarity between songs belonging to the same tune family. Global melodic features often used for the description of melodies (such as melodic contour) play a less important role. The annotation data set is a valuable resource for further research on melodic similarity and can be used as enriched “ground truth” to test various kinds of retrieval algorithms in Music Information Retrieval. Our annotation study exemplifies that assessing similarity is crucial for human categorization processes, which has been questioned within Cognitive Science in the context of rule-based approaches to categorization.

Musicians' Working Memory for Tones, Words, and Pseudowords

Studies investigating factors that influence tone recognition generally use recognition tests, whereas the majority of the studies on verbal material use self-generated responses in the form of serial recall tests. In the present study we intended to investigate whether tonal and verbal materials share the same cognitive mechanisms, by presenting an experimental instrument that evaluates short-term and working memories for tones, using self-generated sung responses that may be compared to verbal tests. This paradigm was designed according to the same structure of the forward and backward digit span tests, but using digits, pseudowords, and tones as stimuli. The profile of amateur singers and professional singers in these tests was compared in forward and backward digit, pseudoword, tone, and contour spans. In addition, an absolute pitch experimental group was included, in order to observe the possible use of verbal labels in tone memorization tasks. In general, we observed that musical schooling has a slight positive influence on the recall of tones, as opposed to verbal material, which is not influenced by musical schooling. Furthermore, the ability to reproduce melodic contours (up and down patterns) is generally higher than the ability to reproduce exact tone sequences. However, backward spans were lower than forward spans for all stimuli (digits, pseudowords, tones, contour). Curiously, backward spans were disproportionately lower for tones than for verbal material-that is, the requirement to recall sequences in backward rather than forward order seems to differentially affect tonal stimuli. This difference does not vary according to musical expertise.

Music Perception and Appraisal: Cochlear Implant Users and Simulated Cochlear Implant Listening

The inability to hear music well may contribute to decreased quality of life for cochlear implant (CI) users. Researchers have reported recently on the generally poor ability of CI users to perceive music, and a few researchers have reported on the enjoyment of music by CI users. However, the relation between music perception skills and music enjoyment is much less explored. Only one study has attempted to predict CI users' enjoyment and perception of music from the users' demographic variables and other perceptual skills (Gfeller et al, 2008). Gfeller's results yielded different predictive relationships for music perception and music enjoyment, and the relationships were weak, at best. The first goal of this study is to clarify the nature and relationship between music perception skills and musical enjoyment for CI users, by employing a battery of music tests. The second goal is to determine whether normal hearing (NH) subjects, listening with a CI simulation, can be used as a model to represent actual CI users for either music enjoyment ratings or music perception tasks. A prospective, cross-sectional observational study. Original music stimuli (unprocessed) were presented to CI users, and music stimuli processed with CI-simulation software were presented to 20 NH listeners (CIsim). As a control, original music stimuli were also presented to five other NH listeners. All listeners appraised 24 musical excerpts, performed music perception tests, and filled out a musical background questionnaire. Music perception tests were the Appreciation of Music in Cochlear Implantees (AMICI), Montreal Battery for Evaluation of Amusia (MBEA), Melodic Contour Identification (MCI), and University of Washington Clinical Assessment of Music Perception (UW-CAMP). Twenty-five NH adults (22-56 yr old), recruited from the local and research communities, participated in the study. Ten adult CI users (46-80 yr old), recruited from the patient population of the local adult cochlear implant program, also participated in this study. Musical excerpts were appraised using a seven-point rating scale, and music perception tests were scored as designed. Analysis of variance was performed on appraisal ratings, perception scores, and questionnaire data with listener group as a factor. Correlations were computed between musical appraisal ratings and perceptual scores on each music test. Music is rated as more enjoyable by CI users than by the NH listeners hearing music through a simulation (CIsim), and the difference is statistically significant. For roughly half of the music perception tests, there are no statistically significant differences between the performance of the CI users and of the CIsim listeners. Generally, correlations between appraisal ratings and music perception scores are weak or nonexistent. NH adults listening to music that has been processed through a CI-simulation program are a reasonable model for actual CI users for many music perception skills, but not for rating musical enjoyment. For CI users, the apparent independence of music perception skills and music enjoyment (as assessed by appraisals) indicates that music enjoyment should not be assumed and should be examined explicitly.

Differential recognition of pitch patterns in discrete and gliding stimuli in congenital amusia: Evidence from Mandarin speakers

This study examined whether “melodic contour deafness” (insensitivity to the direction of pitch movement) in congenital amusia is associated with specific types of pitch patterns (discrete versus gliding pitches) or stimulus types (speech syllables versus complex tones). Thresholds for identification of pitch direction were obtained using discrete or gliding pitches in the syllable /ma/ or its complex tone analog, from nineteen amusics and nineteen controls, all healthy university students with Mandarin Chinese as their native language. Amusics, unlike controls, had more difficulty recognizing pitch direction in discrete than in gliding pitches, for both speech and non-speech stimuli. Also, amusic thresholds were not significantly affected by stimulus types (speech versus non-speech), whereas controls showed lower thresholds for tones than for speech. These findings help explain why amusics have greater difficulty with discrete musical pitch perception than with speech perception, in which continuously changing pitch movements are prevalent.

Tone language experience enhances sensitivity to melodic contour

Lexical tones are perceived along several dimensions, including pitch height, direction, and slope. Melody is also factored into several dimensions, key, contour, and interval, argued to correspond to phonetic dimensions. Tone speakers are expected to possess enhanced sensitivity to musical properties corresponding to properties of their tonal inventories. Mandarin- and English-speaking non-musicians took a melody discrimination test. Mandarin listeners more accurately discriminated melodic contour and interval, corresponding to relevant Mandarin tonal properties direction and slope. Groups performed similarly on other dimensions, indicating that tone language experience causes specific, rather than general, melody perception improvement, consistent with neural and perceptual learning theories.

Cochlear implant users' melody recognition with pitch and loudness cues

Normal-hearing listeners can recognize familiar melodies from loudness changes, although more poorly than from pitch changes. Two hypotheses were tested here: (1) cochlear implant (CI) users can also use loudness changes to perceive melodic contours, and (2) their melody recognition can be enhanced with consistent pitch and loudness changes. In Experiment 1, melodic contours were created by changing the F0s of harmonic complex tones, by changing the intensities of broadband noise bursts, or both. In Experiment 2, familiar melodies were recorded by a pianist. The note intensities were kept as recorded, equalized at 70 dB SPL, or changed from 45 to 75 dB SPL to match the relative pitch changes in semitones. Loudness melodies were also generated with intensity-changing noise bursts. The results showed that CI users' melodic contour identification was better with both pitch and loudness changes than with either alone. Specifically, adding loudness changes significantly improved identification of melodic conto...

World Music Ensemble

As instrumental world music ensembles such as steel pan, mariachi, gamelan and West African drums are becoming more the norm than the exception in North American school music programs, there are other world music ensembles just starting to gain popularity in particular parts of the United States. The kulintang ensemble, a drum and gong ensemble that originated in the Philippines, is one example of such an ensemble. Kulintang ensembles are easily accessible to general music students because of the percussion instrumentation and repetitive patterns of melodic contour. Such ensembles may be particularly successful in areas with large Filipino American populations.

Development and Preliminary Evaluation of a Music-based Attention Assessment for Patients with Traumatic Brain Injury

Impairments in attention are commonly seen in individuals with traumatic brain injury (TBI). While visual attention assessment measurements have been rigorously developed and frequently used in cognitive neurorehabilitation, there is a paucity of auditory attention assessment measurements for patients with TBI. The purpose of this study was to field test a researcher-developed Music-based Attention Assessment (MAA), a melodic contour identification test designed to assess three different types of attention (i.e., sustained attention, selective attention, and divided attention), for patients with TBI. Additionally, this study aimed to evaluate the readability and comprehensibility of the test items and to examine the preliminary psychometric properties of the scale and test items. Fifteen patients diagnosed with TBI completed 3 different series of tasks in which they were required to identify melodic contours. The resulting data showed that (a) test items in each of the 3 subtests were found to have an easy to moderate level of item difficulty and an acceptable to high level of item discrimination, and (b) the musical characteristics (i.e., contour, congruence, and pitch interference) were found to be associated with the level of item difficulty, and (c) the internal consistency of the MAA as computed by Cronbach's alpha was .95. Subsequent studies using a larger sample of typical participants, along with individuals with TBI, are needed to confirm construct validity and internal consistency of the MAA. In addition, the authors recommend examination of criterion validity of the MAA as correlated with current neuropsychological attention assessment measurements.

Influence of pitch, timbre and timing cues on melodic contour identification with a competing masker (L)

Pitch, timbre, and/or timing cues may be used to stream and segregate competing musical melodies and instruments. In this study, melodic contour identification was measured in cochlear implant (CI) and normal-hearing (NH) listeners, with and without a competing masker; timing, pitch, and timbre cues were varied between the masker and target contour. NH performance was near-perfect across different conditions. CI performance was significantly poorer than that of NH listeners. While some CI subjects were able to use or combine timing, pitch and/or timbre cues, most were not, reflecting poor segregation due to poor spectral resolution.