Megalithic Tombs Research Articles

Gold in the Southwest of the Iberian Peninsula during the 3rd Millennium BC

In the Southwest of the Iberian Peninsula, one of the main gold mining regions in Western Europe, the presence of the first gold products are noted in the archaeological records of 3rd Millennium BC megalithic tombs, at some distance from the mining districts. The lack of systematic programmes to analyse such archaeological gold finds has led them to being identified as ornamental finds, of undetermined chronology, linked to a simple manufacturing technology of hammering gold nuggets of an uncertain origin or from the Eastern Mediterranean, as well as items with a purely symbolic or ‘prestige’ value in the funerary practices of simple group-oriented or collaborative chiefdoms. But however, the first documentation, radiocarbon dating and systematic analysis of these products in settlement contexts has altered this interpretation.The presence of gold manufactures during the third quarter of the 3rd Millennium BC (c. 2500–2350 cal. BC) in the contexts of a settlement specialised in copper production such as Cabezo Juré, in the South-western mining region (Huelva, Spain), and in the contexts of a huge central site such as Valencina de la Concepción, in the agrarian region of the Lower Guadalquivir Basin (Seville, Spain), points to the widespread social use of gold in the period of maximum expression of the inter-settlement hierarchisation in the Southwest of the Iberian Peninsula, its link with the social spaces of inequality expression and their relationship with a complex production system. Geochemical characterization by LA-ICP-MS, lead isotopes analysis by MC-ICP-MS and metallographic study suggest two differentiated and independent supplies of raw material systems (fluvial placers vs. mines and local vs. regional scale), with at least four source areas, the regional circulation of raw material or products and a manufacturing by a metallurgical technology linked to the copper production.

The Western Altmark versus Flintbek – palaeoecological research on two megalithic regions

This investigation focuses on the human-induced transformation of landscapes by comparing two small-scale megalithic regions on the North German Plain. For this study two test areas were defined, each measuring 36 km2. Archaeological information and palaeoecological proxies were implemented to investigate changes of the environment related to human activities of the Neolithic Funnel Beaker Culture (FBC) during the period from ca. 3800–2800 cal BC. The chronological framework was constructed with the help of Bayesian and aoristic modelling of AMS-dates, combining archaeological and radiometric information. Charcoal from the megalithic tombs provided on-site data that show human impact induced by the construction and further use of the graves. Off-site data originated from two pollen profiles of nearby bogs. They supply additional information on local and regional landscape development. The ratio of light-demanding to shade-tolerant woody species represents the degree of woodland openness. It is a value which can be determined for both anthracological as well as palynological data. A comparison of both proxies led to divergent results for the two chosen areas. The proxies can be associated quite well for the Haidberg area with regard to openness, whereas missing accordance of both palaeoecological data sets in the Flintbek region provides a strong argument for human impact on local levels. A settlement phase indicated by various non-arboreal pollen taxa was not confirmed for the Altmark Haidberg area before 3050 cal BC, but in the nearby area of Beetzendorf (7 km distance) at least since ca. 3200 cal BC. In the Flintbek region, two settlement phases of the FBC are visible, separated by a phase of forest regeneration, which was attributed to changes of settlement behaviour within the local Neolithic societies.

Cultural interaction and change: a multi-isotopic approach to the Neolithization in coastal areas

Drawing on data from the megalithic tomb in Resmo on Öland in the Baltic Sea, we use a multi-isotopic approach, involving the systematic treatment and modelling of extensive human and faunal isotopic data (14C, δ13C, δ15N, δ34S and 87Sr/86Sr), along with archaeological contextual evidence, to study change and interaction. The fact that people utilize aquatic resources necessitates modelling of the sulphur and strontium isotope data, to prevent the aquatic contribution from obscuring the local terrestrial signal. It was possible to demonstrate how the people buried in Resmo went through dynamic changes in diet, mobility patterns and cultural identity during more than two millennia of burial practice: from the incipient farmers of the Funnel Beaker Culture, through the cultural encounters and transitions during the Middle Neolithic, to the newcomers furthering intensified agriculture, trade and metal craftsmanship during the Bronze Age.

The palaeogeography and Neolithic archaeology of Herm in the Channel Islands

The small Channel Island of Herm combines several distinct habitats ranging from steep rocky coasts and a rolling upland plateau in the south to a dune-fringed sandy lowland in the north. Where upland and lowland meet, a line of megalithic tombs constitutes the island’s most striking archaeological feature. Four seasons of fieldwork (2008–2011) have sought to determine the environmental history of northern Herm since the last glacial period and to place the tombs within the broader context of Neolithic activity. A series of trenches and boreholes has revealed the changing morphology of the prehistoric land surface that lies buried beneath the extensive deposits of aeolian sand that cover this part of the island. Results indicate that much of the lowland plain was initially occupied by a shallow marine inlet that was cut off from the sea and progressively infilled starting in the 4th millennium b.c. Pollen and soil sequences reveal how the wooded early Holocene landscape around the edges of this inlet was steadily degraded by human impact and climate. Traces of settlement and cultivation (plowmarks) suggest the megalithic tombs were situated within an agricultural landscape. This finding has relevance for theories that have proposed that islands were favored places for burial by communities visiting from the neighboring mainland. Herm was a locus for settlement and farming as well as for burial during the Neolithic period.

Ensayo de reconstrucción virtual de un túmulo funerario: El túmulo del Mortórum (Cabanes, Castellón)

<p>We presents a virtual reconstruction of the megalithic tomb found near of Tossal del Mortórum (Cabanes, Castellón) dated on the second millennium BC. The structure discovered in 2005 was plundered at an undetermined moment, and their conservation status is very precarious. Given the undoubted interest of the tomb, located in an area of the peninsula with little evidence of megalithism, we decided to make a essay of its virtual reconstruction. The basic software used in the modeling and rendering is Blender 2.56, so this paper can also show the capabilities of open source software for these projects.</p>

Evaluating prehistoric finds of Arrhenatherum elatius var. bulbosum in north-western and central Europe with an emphasis on the first Neolithic finds in Northern Germany

The swollen basal internodes of the grass species Arrhenatherum elatius var. bulbosum (tuber oat grass) are recorded here for the first time for Neolithic Germany. These charred bulbs occurred in the Late Neolithic soil mantle of the megalithic tomb of Albersdorf-Brutkamp LA 5. They are interpreted as most probably originating from the natural vegetation on and around the grave mound. The bulbs were possibly charred in the course of a ritual fire. However, their use as gathered plants and their intentional deposition in a secondary burial ritual during the Late Neolithic cannot be excluded with any certainty. Identification criteria for Arrhenatherum bulbs as well as the ecological requirements of the species are introduced here. Furthermore, prehistoric bulb finds from north-western and central Europe, and different interpretations concerning the occurrence of Arrhenatherum in different archaeological contexts, are discussed. The compilation of finds from literature and excavation reports shows that bulbs of Arrhenatherum were found rather infrequently in the Neolithic. Most commonly, charred bulbs of A. elatius var. bulbosum are detected in Bronze Age cremation graves. In the Iron Age, however, they mainly occur in domestic sites. This shows that the interpretation of the plant remains is dependent on their archaeological context. A ritual meaning of the bulbs has to be considered in the interpretation, but they may also have contributed to people’s daily diet. This evaluation of bulb finds in prehistoric and historic contexts contributes to the debate on the relevance of plant gathering in early economies and in ritual activities.

Allochthonous red pigments used in burial practices at the Copper Age site of Valencina de la Concepción (Sevilla, Spain): characterisation and social dimension

The use of red pigments linked to burial practices is widely documented in the Iberian prehistoric record and very often it has been traditionally interpreted as a ritual practice entailing the utilisation of local raw materials (iron oxides). Some research works, nevertheless, have also detected the use of red pigments which can only be interpreted as allochthonous. The red pigments spread over a single inhumation in a monumental Megalithic tomb surrounding Valencina de la Concepción Copper Age settlement was studied by means of X-ray diffraction, field emission scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, X-ray microfluorescence, micro-Raman and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopies. This approach allowed characterising the red pigments as cinnabar, mixed with tiny amounts of iron oxides. The presence of cinnabar, a product that was necessarily imported, in a context of an exceptional set of grave goods, suggests that the use of cinnabar was linked not only to ritual but also to practices related to the display of social status.

The cultural landscape of megalithic tombs in Denmark, reconstructed by soil pollen analysis

Forty-four pollen spectra from 25 megalithic tombs (5 dolmens and 20 passage graves) in eastern and northern Denmark reveal a highly varied landscape with remains of woodland, coppice woods or secondary woodland and open areas of grass and herb vegetation. Very often there are traces of tree burning. The dominant land-use was cereal growing on burnt sites and pasture. A long-fallow swidden rotation based on the burning of coppice, cereal growing, pasture and coppice regeneration is indicated.

The ‘Genetic’ Analysis of Iberian Dolmens: A Test of the Idea in the Central Pyrenees

In a previous paper on the topic (hereafter Paper 1 ),' the authors presented an extended statistical analysis of several groups of megalithic tombs in the Iberian Peninsula and neighbouring regions. In recent years, orientation studies and its statistical approach have received considerable attention in archaeology as a source of information that may shed light on a number of issues related to landscape and territory ownership by past cultures.2 The megalithic tombs, including dolmens, tholoi or allees couvertes, are no exception.Paper 1 presented a 'genetic' approach to the data,3 where the dendrogram, along with the Principal Components Analysis, clearly demonstrated that there was a link between the geographic location of the clusters of megalithic tombs and their respective orientation. The 27 neighbouring clusters of dolmens in the Iberian Peninsula tend to share orientation characteristics (see Figure 1). This result was true regardless of the type of dolmen and the epoch of construction, a fact which recalled a persistence of orientation custom and a necessary communication between neighbouring regions especially along river valleys or perhaps across mountain ranges such as the Pyrenees.In Paper 1, we also suggested a way of testing our hypotheses further, by checking whether there could have been a connection across the central Pyrenees, linking the dolmens of Navarre in the west to Catalonia in the east. This research note presents such a test for the hitherto unmeasured dolmens of the Pyrenees region of the province of Huesca where two dozen monuments had been reported.4 The dolmens in the area (see Figure 2) are of standard type and small dimensions, the body of the monument being enclosed in a tumulus or cairn of pebbles that have been preserved in several instances. These megalithic tombs have been dated to the third millennium b.c. and are thought to be the burial places of a community of shepherds moving across the Pyrenees and using the local grasslands during the hotter periods of the year. Of the nearly 30 monuments reported, about one-third were in a deplorable state of preservation and measurements were impossible. Another half-dozen could not be measured because they were in mountainous areas and so inaccessible.Table 1 presents the data of the 15 dolmens (plus one) obtained in two campaigns in the summers of 2010 and 201 1 .6This represents some three-quarters of the measurable structures and so is representative. Figure 3 shows the orientation diagram and the declination histogram of the data. High mountain peaks occupied wide areas of the horizon, and so it was crucial to take into account the angular heights and local topography. The value of this is shown in the declination histogram, where lunisolar orientations are dominant (-90% of the sample) despite the original dispersion of the azimuths as shown in the orientation diagram. This demonstrates the great superiority of in situ fieldwork over office software support tools in archaeoastronomical studies.The new dendrogram obtained after the inclusion of the data of the dolmens of the province of Huesca (HSCA) is to be seen in Figure 1 . Our new set of data is located in the dendrogram within a cluster where groups of nearby regions such as north-central Spain (NORT, including the megalithic tombs of neighbouring Navarre) and Catalonia (BRNA, GRNA and PIRI) are included. The dolmens of Corsica and Sardinia are also found in this cluster but this is more probably a cultural convergence than a real relationship. …

Settling Down or Moving On?: The Settlement of the Irish Neolithic Landscape

The Irish Neolithic spanned some 1,600 years from approximately 4,000 to 2,400 bc. At the beginning of this period, Ireland was a frontier land at the remote edge of Europe. The first farmers arriving from Britain or the continent found a heavily forested land teeming with wildlife, which was already home to scattered groups of hunter-gatherers who had coexisted with this world for centuries. As these farmers set about clearing the woodland to lay out their farms and construct the first robust rectangular (and, later, circular) houses, they would give rise to a society which in time would build a range of megalithic tombs, various earthen monuments such as henges and mounds, great ritual complexes spread over many acres like Bru na Boinne in County Meath, large ordered settlements, and massive fieldwall systems. The history of excavating Neolithic settlements dates back to the 1890s, when such pioneers as William J. Knowles began uncovering prehistoric coastal settlements. Over the following decades, the number of known sites slowly increased until Sean P. O Riordain’s landmark 1954 publication of the major Lough Gur settlement in County Limerick. During the remainder of the century, trained researchers excavated a small but steady number of house sites. The affluence of the 1990s triggered a surge in the number of sites excavated; this ended with the financial crisis of 2008. Nonetheless, the archaeological literature now includes hundreds of published house excavations. And yet, the Neolithic, one of the most researched periods in ancient Irish history, remains the subject of ongoing debate in Irish archaeology. The debate stems from many causes: the sheer wealth of sites; the realization that the Irish Neolithic differed radically from the Neolithic experience in neighboring Britain; and a changing emphasis in the research. Empirical data-driven analysis of sites has been succeeded by a greater desire to understand how people of the time actually lived and interacted with their world. A key issue in the debates—

The megalithic tombs in the region of Belas (Sintra, Portugal) and their aesthetic manifestations

Within the region of Lisbon, artistic manifestations from megalithic tombs are virtually unknown, although they are frequent in other regions. The megalithic group of Belas has a particular relevance to this subject given its two types of aesthetic and artistic features already published by previous authors, but not properly emphasized or characterized. On one hand, the builders of the three known tombs –Pedra dos Mouros, Monte Abraao and Estria– made selective usage of certain types of rock slabs, based on their morphological characteristics on the slab surfaces, structuring them within an intentional aesthetic pattern. On the other hand, on the external surface of one of the slabs of Pedra dos Mouros, two engraved anthropomorphic fi gurines are known, but need to be reevaluated taking into account the most recent studies.

Interactions with the Dead: A Taphonomic Analysis of Burial Practices in Three Megalithic Tombs in County Clare, Ireland

Burial is a highly symbolic activity through which concepts of the world are reflected in the representation and treatment of human remains. While mortuary studies in archaeology and anthropology have had a long history, our understanding of Neolithic societies through such analyses is lacking. This article has attempted to broaden our understandings of one such society, focusing upon the megalithic tomb tradition in Ireland, through an integrated study of the burial practices taking place at several sites located on the Burren, County Clare. The Parknabinnia chambered tomb, Poulnabrone portal tomb, and Poulawack Linkardstown-type cairn are located within three kilometres of each other and date to contemporary periods. Several questions are explored through the use of archaeological evidence, osteological analysis, and taphonomy to allow for a broader appreciation of social practices in the past – most notably burial practices. What types of burial practices were taking place; how do the sites compare to each other; and how do they fit within the overall scheme of Neolithic practices we have come to understand?

De dødes flækker – Slidsporsanalyse af flækker fra et megalitanlæg og en boplads

De dødes flækker – Slidsporsanalyse af flækker fra et megalitanlæg og en boplads

WHEN THE BOUGH BREAKS: CHILDHOOD MORTALITY AND BURIAL PRACTICE IN LATE NEOLITHIC ATLANTIC EUROPE

SummaryTowards the end of the fifth millennium BC, a new funerary tradition developed in Iberia and elsewhere in Atlantic Europe involving the use of megalithic tombs and natural or artificially constructed caves for the collective burial of the dead. Ancestor worship has been the most common theoretical framework used to explain this Neolithic burial tradition, despite demographic information which indicates that these burials house the remains of a significant percentage of children and adolescents. Using data from Late Neolithic (3500–2500 BC) tombs in south‐western Iberia as a departure point, in this paper we suggest that by reconsidering the impact that childhood mortality had upon burial and grave visitation practices in Neolithic communities, archaeologists can gain valuable phenomenological information which will allow for a more robust, multivocal interpretative approach.

The passage grave at Mysinge, Öland, SE Sweden in a long-term perspective

During the latest part of the early Neolithic period around 3500–3300 BC, megalithic tombs in the form of dolmens and passage graves are built in many different parts of Scandinavia. In Denmark thousands of dolmens and hundreds of passage graves are known, and in northern Germany huge number of tombs are documented as well (Midgley, 1992:418ff). On a Swedish level, dense concentrations of tombs are found along the coasts in Scania and western Sweden, as well as in the area Falbygden in central Västergötland (Srömberg, 1971; Persson & Sjögren, 2001; Sjögren, 2004) (see Fig. 1). Outside these core areas, dolmens and passage graves occur sporadically (e.g. Janzon, 2009; Wallin, 2010) and in large parts of the distribution area of the TRB culture, megalithic tombs have not been built. On the island of Öland, one dolmen and three passage graves are located in the parish of Resmo (Arne, 1909; Papmehl-Dufay, 2006; see below). Only one of these has been excavated, namely the southernmost passage grave at Mysinge, which is the focus of the present paper. [...]

Interactions with the Dead: A Taphonomic Analysis of Burial Practices in Three Megalithic Tombs in County Clare, Ireland

Burial is a highly symbolic activity through which concepts of the world are reflected in the representation and treatment of human remains. While mortuary studies in archaeology and anthropology have had a long history, our understanding of Neolithic societies through such analyses is lacking. This article has attempted to broaden our understandings of one such society, focusing upon the megalithic tomb tradition in Ireland, through an integrated study of the burial practices taking place at several sites located on the Burren, County Clare. The Parknabinnia chambered tomb, Poulnabrone portal tomb, and Poulawack Linkardstown-type cairn are located within three kilometres of each other and date to contemporary periods. Several questions are explored through the use of archaeological evidence, osteological analysis, and taphonomy to allow for a broader appreciation of social practices in the past – most notably burial practices. What types of burial practices were taking place; how do the sites compare to each other; and how do they fit within the overall scheme of Neolithic practices we have come to understand?

Domestic production and the political economy in prehistory: evidence from the Burren, Co. Clare

Three closely related prehistoric landscapes located in the Burren in Co. Clare are investigated with the aim of exploring the relationships between households and the wider societies within which they functioned. Particular emphasis is placed on the spatial expression of residential, economic and ritual activities across the landscapes. The changing relationship between domestic production and the developing political economy is placed in its wider Irish and British context and discussed in terms of gift exchanges and debt relationships. Introduction The core activities of households have been identified in both ethnographic studies of contemporary societies and archaeological studies of ancient societies as production, distribution, reproduction, co-residence and transmission (primarily of wealth and social position). Although there is often a 'pull' towards the pursuit of these activities at the level of the individual household, ethnographic studies have shown that even in fairly simple societies, households are frequently incorporated into larger kin groups, work parties or residential groups to form efficient production units.1 Production concerned primarily with maintaining and perpetuating the family (domestic production) is, therefore, shaped in part by the wider relationships within which households function. The formation and maintenance of supra-household production groups is generally brought about through economic interdependence, ideology and symbolism working together to extend the definition of kinship relationships and thereby extend the labour available for domestic production. Even in fairly simple societies, domestic production is frequently increased and a percentage diverted to fund * Author's e-mail: carleton.jones@nuigalway.ie doi: 10.33 18/PRIAC.2010.1 1 1.33 1 Timothy Earle, 'Property rights and the evolution of chiefdoms', in Timothy Earle (ed.), Chiefdoms: power, economy ; and ideology (Cambridge, 1991), 71-99. Andrew Fleming, 'Land tenure, productivity, and field systems', in G. Barker and C. Gamble (eds), Beyond domestication in prehistoric Europe (London, 1985), 129^46. Augustin Holl, 'Community interaction and settlement patterning in northern Cameroon', in Augustin Holl and Thomas Levy (eds), Spatial boundaries and social dynamics (Ann Arbor, MI, 1993), 39-62. Marshall Sahlins, Stone Age economics (Chicago, 1972). Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy Vol. 1 1 1C, 33-58 © 2010 Royal Irish Academy This content downloaded from 157.55.39.116 on Sat, 11 Jun 2016 06:58:44 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms Carleton Jones, Olive Carey and Clare Hennigar community ceremonies and building projects (the political economy).2 Relevant evidence for this type of behaviour in western European prehistory is the construction and use of megalithic tombs in the Neolithic, particularly those that emphasize collective burial practices and those which echo the architecture of ancestral houses.3 In more hierarchical societies, the political economy encompasses not only communal ceremonies and projects but also the financing of elites who are removed, at least partially, from the domestic economy. In prehistoric Europe, the Bronze Age is generally viewed as a time when inequalities were heightened and the political economy expanded to support elites. The use and display of metalwork seems to have been particularly important to these elites as a means whereby they identified themselves and legitimised their superior positions.4 Ethnographic studies have also shown that relationships of production, kinship and domination can all be related to the spatial expression of residential, economic and ritual activities across a landscape.5 The spatial dimension of these activities means that studies of archaeological landscapes, particularly when they are well-preserved landscapes, are a good route of investigation into the social dynamics of past societies, including relationships between households and the wider

Heavens on Earth

![Figure][1] Megalithic tomb in Portugal. CREDIT: I. GOMES (WWW.FLICKR.COM/PHOTOS/IVOGOMES) An ancient bone with notches that may represent a lunar calendar, prehistoric stone tombs in Portugal that point to the rising sun, and the Mauna Kea Observatories in Hawaii are promising contenders

Variscite source and source analysis: testing assumptions at Pico Centeno (Encinasola, Spain)

The analysis of trade and their implications for understanding social interaction is a major research question of prehistoric research in Europe. Variscite is a rare mineral that offers an excellent opportunity to study trade and exchange patterns in prehistoric Europe through proveniencing of source material. In this paper we discuss the exploitation and exchange of variscite at Pico Centeno mining district during the Copper Age. XRF, XRD, and FTIR analyses of the mineral recovered at Pico Centeno mining district during archaeological survey provides a baseline mineral signature for the source and sub-sources, which were then compared to other Iberian sources and to 44 green beads from 8 megalithic tombs from two different regions, in order to test ‘ provenance postulate’ and distribution models. Mineral sampled during survey at Pico Centeno mining district turned out to be pure variscite phases, while extremely varied for the studied green beads: variscite, muscovite, talc or chlorite. On testing ‘ provenance postulate’ we have focused on compositional comparison of Pico Centeno’s variscite with reference from various geological sources of Western Europe. We found that the concentrations of trace elements do not allow us to establish the origin of the beads, as traditionally claimed, due to the strong natural variability on minor and trace elements of the sources. Instead we found after FTIR analysis, that different proportions of phosphate species, which results in P/Al ratios higher than 1, arose during the genesis of the variscite deposits and resulted from the associated pH and nature of the host-rocks, modifying the concentrations of PO 4 3−, H 2PO 4 − and HPO 4 2−. Thus, the P/Al atomic ratio should be an indication of provenance as it is established during mineral genesis. This issue has not been addressed in any of the other studied sources where this ratio seems to be ≈1.

Statistical Analysis of Megalithic Tomb Orientations in the Iberian Peninsula and Neighbouring Regions

Statistical Analysis of Megalithic Tomb Orientations in the Iberian Peninsula and Neighbouring Regions