Megalithic Research Articles

No time to die: Radiocarbon chronology of the funerary monument of El Amarejo 1 and burial practices during the Bronze Age in the Southern Meseta, Spain

Abstract This paper presents the radiocarbon context of the megalithic monument El Amarejo 1, situated in the corridor of Almansa in the southern region of La Meseta in Spain. The monument was constructed using small and medium-sized masonry, comprising a short corridor and two separate chambers in which burials were carried out. The results of the 14C analyses of each of the 11 individuals documented indicate that the monument was in use between approximately 1900 and 1200 cal BC. Bayesian modeling of the radiocarbon dates allows for the proposition of hypotheses regarding the construction, utilisation dynamics, and abandonment of the monument. The combination of these new data with the analysis of the 14C dating of other burials from the Bronze Age of La Mancha reveals a complex and heterogeneous panorama. The evidence presented and analyzed in this paper suggests that burial practices associated with fortified settlements and their domestic areas shared space and time with the construction of megalithic monuments located near settlements.

Reconstructing prehistoric lifeways using multi-Isotope analyses of human enamel, dentine, and bone from Legaire Sur, Spain.

Megalithism has been repetitively tied to specialised herding economies in Iberia, particularly in the mountainous areas of the Basque Country. Legaire Sur, in the uplands of Álava region, is a recently excavated passage tomb (megalithic monument) that held a minimum number of 25 individuals. This study analysed the carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and strontium isotope ratios of 18 individuals, in a multi-tissue sampling study (successional tooth enamel sampling, incremental dentine sampling, and bulk bone collagen sampling). The results provide a high-resolution reconstruction of individual mobility, weaning, and dietary lifeways of those inhumed at the site. Oxygen and strontium isotope analysis suggest all individuals come from a similar, likely local, geological region, aside from one biological female who presents a notably different geographical birthplace, weaning, and dietary life history than the rest of the burial population. Comparisons to other nearby megalithic sites (∼35km as the crow flies), located in a valley area, reveal that, whilst sharing the same mortuary practices, these individuals held notably different lifeways. They highlight notably earlier ages of cessation of nursing (≤2 years at Legaire Sur vs. ≥4 years in other megalithic tombs), and a greater dependence on pastoralism than previously observed in lowland megalithic graves. The results from Legaire Sur reveal the complexity of the Late Neolithic-Chalcolithic transition in north-central Iberia, categorising yet another separate socio-economic group with distinctive lifeways inhabiting the region.

Discovery of a Stone Circle (Cairn Circle) at Sree Krishna College Guruvayur: A Link to South India’s Stone Age Heritage

Megalithic monuments are found extensively across Kerala, offering significant insights into the ancient societies that once thrived in the region. These structures—comprising umbrella stones, rock-cut caves, menhirs, dolmens, port-holed cists, and stone circles— represent a sophisticated ritual landscape spanning various districts. The Thrissur district, particularly near Kunnamkulam and Kandanassery, hosts several important prehistoric sites within a 15-kilometer radius, such as burial caves in Kattakambal, Kandanassery, and Kakkad, as well as the Kudakkallu Parambu at Cheramanangad and the Ariyannur Umbrellas. This paper introduces a newly discovered megalithic site at Sree Krishna College, Guruvayur, featuring a stone circle or cairn circle—the first of its kind documented at this location. The study explores the site’s geographical setting, structural characteristics, and cultural significance, contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of Kerala's megalithic heritage.

Uncovering Ancient Mysteries: The Megalithic Cist-Burials of Enadimangalam

Megalithism is the practice of huge stones associated with burial practices. An interdisciplinary approach is needed in collaboration with History and Archaeology to study Megaliths. This article is a brief report of the exploration conducted at Enadimangalam Grama Panchayath in Adoor Taluk, Pathanamthitta District, Kerala, during the field season 2018. The research's primary objective was to systematically explore the unreported megalithic sites in Enadimangalam and report them. The researcher discovered nine sites in the systematic ward-to-ward survey, and explorations carried out at Enadimangalam Grama Panchayath in 2018. These sites were reported to the authorities. This article elaborates on a detailed description of the reported sites. This study shows that the Enadimangalam area has a predominant Megalithic background and is assumed to be one of the largest sites so far discovered. It is observed that the area is very vast and bounded by hills and valleys that comprise more than a thousand acres of land. This indicates that the Megalithic monuments are widely distributed in this area and shows the enormity of the settlement.

The Megaliths of Mols Peninsula – a Case Study of Applied Digital Photogrammetry in a Survey of Neolithic Monuments in Denmark

Abstract This study presents a practical case analysis detailing the outcomes of a survey project conducted on Neolithic megalithic structures on the Mols Peninsula in East Jutland, Denmark. The survey methodology employed digital photogrammetry, utilizing consumer-grade drones and handheld digital cameras. This approach facilitated the merging of aerial perspectives of the local surroundings with terrestrial photographs specifically focusing on the densely clustered stone chambers. Subsequently, the gathered data underwent conversion into various forms, such as orthophotos, surface elevation models, 3D representations, hill shades, point clouds, and textured low-resolution models optimized for online visualization. Among the noteworthy findings, the study included an evaluation of 19th-century drawings, revealing their remarkable precision. However, it was also noted that one of the monuments underwent substantial alterations in 1943. Moreover, the study successfully generated 3D models of the capstones from two dolmens, allowing for their virtual reconstruction. Importantly, the research introduced an innovative technique for mapping burned flints on the field surface surrounding the dolmens by employing low-altitude vertical drone photography – a previously unexplored method.

Web-Based Implementation of Information Visualization of Megalithic Cultural Heritage

Objective: The purpose of this study is to assess the outcomes of developing a megalithic culture web application in Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia, as an information visualization platform for digital heritage documentation of megalithic culture. The application's reliability is evaluated by a pilot study, with an emphasis on the elements of efficiency, ease of learning, ease of use, and user satisfaction. Method: Pilot testing in this study uses a questionnaire-based approach to collect information involving 33 respondents from around the Malay Nature and Civilization Library, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM). The collected data was analyzed with the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software version 28. Results and Discussion: The study's findings indicate that the produced web application has excellent and effective values with a high level of consistency. This means that it can be used as a digital documentation medium to show the community what cultural heritage survives in this state today in order to preserve it. It is hoped that the web application produced will assist in transmitting and sharing knowledge on megalithic culture in Negeri Sembilan to the general public, as part of efforts to dignify cultural heritage remains. Research Implications: This study adds to the creation of digital documents based on web applications that can be simply and rapidly accessed by all levels of global society. The consequences of these research findings can serve as the foundation for formulating policies to preserve the value of megalithic cultural remnants, promote archeotourism development activities, and assist local community development and economic empowerment. Originality/Value: This work presents original discoveries on information exploration and mapping existing megalithic sites to a digital platform in an effort to improve information exchange and digital preservation, which are currently below optimal levels. This study also adds to the growth of literature by focusing on one research information source connected to megalithic culture in Negeri Sembilan rather than searching for information through multiple spread information sources. Furthermore, this endeavor represents an innovation in information sharing through the use of GIS technology, which will undoubtedly ensure that records for megalithic site discovery are always kept and accessible to future users and scholars. Through the notion of digital preservation of cultural heritage, this is one endeavor to elevate the remnants of the megalithic cultural heritage as one of the unique heritages not only in Malaysia but also worldwide.

장소만들기 관점에서 본 김해 구산동 묘역지석묘의 공간구현 전략

The dolmen with surrounding stone platform of Gusan-dong, Gimhae, was a megalithic monument built to realize political purposes. This was the creation of a new landscape and the result of creating a kind of place with added social function and symbolic mean-ing. In making such a place, spatial implementation strategies that considered the physical environment of the time, the activities of local residents, and symbolic aspects were used. First, a strategy was used to form a central image by dramatically highlighting the characteristics of the construction space of the dolmen. The dolmen with surrounding stone platform in Gusan-dong was in a path that controlled movement throughout the Gimhae Basin, and occupied a node that could exert influence and play a role as a central point of the region. In addition, it had a spatial status that connected the physical and psychological boundaries divided by the Haebancheon River and wetlands, and integrated the location and foreign culture. Above all, the dolmen was a landmark representing visibility and sym-bolism, forming the central image of the local community and acting as a place with a spe-cial meaning. The second place-making strategy was the creation of space sequences and activity spaces that induced the repetitive experiences of the dolmen. The dolmen was built at the intersection of the axis of the Gimhae Basin, which formed a circular structure that induced a dynamic physical experience. In addition, the platform of the dolmen formed a segment through changes in the shape, height difference, and material of the structure and had the effect of inducing a strong visual experience. The visibility of the dolmen also induced con-tinuous visual experiences to local residents moving along the axis. On the other hand, it is highly likely that the platform was used as a space for repetitive ritual activities, and this seems to have influenced the formation of the placeness of the dolmen. The third strategy was the realization of a symbolic place that implies historicality. At that time, the Gimhae Basin was creating a politically meaningful place by adopting the dolmens with surrounding stone platforms as seen at 294 Daeseong-dong. It was the Gu-san-dong dolmen that expanded and reproduced these traditional tombs. This was a politi-cal act emphasizing the symbolism of the dolmen through the spatial expansion and visual-ization of the traditional order, and the symbolic landscape at the local level was converted to the regional level of the Gimhae Basin.

Female sex bias in Iberian megalithic societies through bioarchaeology, aDNA and proteomics

Uncertainties regarding traditional osteological methods in biological sex estimation can often be overcome with genomic and proteomic analyses. The combination of the three methodologies has been used for a better understanding of the gender-related funerary rituals at the Iberian megalithic cemetery of Panoría. As a result, 44 individuals have been sexed including, for the first time, non-adults. Contrary to the male bias found in many Iberian and European megalithic monuments, the Panoría population shows a clear sex ratio imbalance in favour of females, with twice as many females as males. Furthermore, this imbalance is found regardless of the criterion considered: sex ratio by tomb, chronological period, method of sex estimation, or age group. Biological relatedness was considered as possible sociocultural explanations for this female-related bias. However, the current results obtained for Panoría are indicative of a female-centred social structure potentially influencing rites and cultural traditions.

SfM Photogrammetry for Cost-Effective 3D Documentation and Rock Art Analysis of the Dombate Dolmen (Spain) and the Megalithic Sites of Chã dos Cabanos and Chã da Escusalha (Portugal)

SfM (structure from motion) photogrammetry is a technique developed in the field of computer vision that enables the generation of three-dimensional (3D) models from a set of overlapping images captured from disparate angles. The application of this technique in the field of cultural heritage, particularly in the context of megalithic monuments, is inherently challenging due to the spatial constraints of these environments and the usual limitations posed by their architectural design, which often results in poor lighting conditions. This article presents an accurate and cost-efficient methodology for the study and documentation of rock art, which has been applied to three megalithic monuments in the Iberian Peninsula: one in Spain and two in Portugal. The three working environments are complex, but the combination of techniques used and improvements such as rendering for the enhancement of engravings and the creation of 3D stop-motion models made it possible to integrate all the information in 3D formats that allow its universal dissemination. This not only preserves the heritage in graphic form but also makes it accessible to the public, both for study and for virtual visits.

Mining, farming, and diplomacy. Understanding the human landscape of Bronze Age Sardinia (Italy) through geospatial analysis

Human agency on landscape modification and land use is often seen in terms of socio-economic opportunities vs. natural constraints. In the study of prehistoric cultures this is both a strong source of information about sustenance strategies and community behaviours, and a subject potentially easy to analyse within a limited set of physical and social parameters. The recent advancements in the use of spatial analysis tools in landscape archaeology allow to obtain ever more precise models. However, studies that compare at the same time the geological landscape and social elements are very scarce. We used Point Pattern Analysis and Modelling to investigate megalithic structures (nuraghes) in Bronze Age southwestern Sardinia (Italy) and identify correlations between their spatial patterns and a set of covariates encompassing both environmental (i.e. topography and geological resources) and cultural factors. The models which best represent pattern distribution come from the combination of covariates from both groups.The models highlight a close distance from known ore deposits and show a clear dependence of Nuragic populations to ore extraction and metallurgy. The availability of fertile soils with moderate permeability and moderately low pH is also significant, as well as a preference to prominent locations with a positive correlation with the Topographic Position Index and the Convexity Index. From a cultural standpoint, we observed a consistent aggregation of simple nuraghes around complex nuraghes at mid-short distances. The occurrence of polycentric patterns can be explained either by the former emerging from the presence of the latter or vice versa, and is typically associated with a loosely stratified social structure devoid of strong hierarchies. These results underscore the efficacy of spatial analysis in disentangling and juxtaposing the physical and social factors influencing the distribution of past culture, and offer new insight on the development of Bronze Age societies in their geographical context.

On the Possible Astronomical Function of Portasar’s (G¨obekli Tepe) Pillar 27

The examination of Portasar’s Pillar 27 in Enclosure C from an archaeoastronomical point of view reveals four distinct directions. Considering the directions obtained as observational shows that they could have served to observe the simultaneous culminations of Pleiades, α Persei, and 36 Draconis pointing towards the North Ecliptic Pole during the activity period of the September ε-Perseid meteor shower. On the same day (perhaps a few days apart) before sunrise, it was most likely possible to observe the star disappearance of the constellations Hercules and Centaurus at their culmination points. At the same time, the T-shaped structure of Pillar 27 could serve as a shadow meter (gnomon) to show the specified day of the mentioned observations. Additionally, 36 days after the summer solstice (Perseids activity period), the simultaneous appearance of the stars β Andromedae and γ Draconis at their culmination points was observable. On the other hand, there are principal parallels with the possible observations with the help of Portasar’s Pillar 27 and the function of Platform 3 (as well as some angular stones (No. 7, 12, 158, etc.)) of the Zorats Qarer megalithic monument, which refer to the same millennium (9000 BC). There are also commonalities with ancient calendar patterns that relate to ancient mythological concepts. Their detailed analysis is still in progress.

On the Astronomical Significance of Stone Number 137 of Zorats Qarer Megalithic Monument

The work is dedicated to discovering a new type of “observational device” in the Zorats Qarer megalithic monument and uncovering a new layer of the continuous function of the monument using the “new device.” The possible use of the “new device” significantly differs from the observation platforms and angular stones in the same monument. Stone No. 137 in question was previously considered a ”periscope” based on some assumptions. By examining the astronomical and structural application of the mentioned stone in more detail and without preconceived assumptions (or with much simpler, obvious suppositions), new functions of its application are revealed. One relates to the observations of circumpolar stars in the direction of the stone hole. The other relies on the puddle and the special structure of the stone. The latter makes it possible to determine the days of the equinoxes and the summer solstice due to the Sun’s positions. By combining these two functions, the probable date of the use of the stone is determined: 15500 BC, when it was possible to observe the appearance of the star γ Cygni (Sadr, Swan constellation) after sunset on the summer solstice in the direction of the hole. Thus, a new layer of the “calendar observations” (15500 BC) is added to the already identified layers (9000, 5800, and 2341 BC), which is in harmony with the logic regarding this and other similar monuments (for example, G¨obekli Tepe) and essentially complements the evolutionary chain of ancient cultural concepts with its content and time.

Building the Lesser Caucasus Monumental Landscape during the Bronze Age: Life and Death on the Javakheti Plateau (Georgia)

Abstract Surveys carried out in the Javakheti Plateau during the last decade have improved our knowledge of the Bronze Age archaeology of this highland zone of the Lesser Caucasus of Georgia. Surveys have been conducted all over the area surrounding the Mt. Chikiani volcano, along the southern terraces of the Tsalka Reservoir, and some of the north-western slopes of Mt. Paravani. All these territories have yielded impressive evidence of megalithic monuments, stone-walled villages, kurgans, basalt and schist quarries, as well as obsidian extraction and production areas. Among these latter is an important circular platform made of basalt boulders, above which a workshop for the manufacture of obsidian bifacial arrowheads and spearheads was discovered. All the aforementioned features have been GPS-recorded and photographed with the use of a non-professional small drone. They show that the entire region is a monumental landscape, which most probably started to be built around the beginning of the Bronze Age, as many of the lithic finds would suggest.

Dating the setting of a late prehistoric statue-menhir at Cruz de Cepos, NE Portugal

The emergence of ‘standing stone’ monuments within the European Late Prehistoric landscape is considered to be associated with a pivotal human cultural transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture and permanent settlement, being the earliest monuments currently dated by radiocarbon to the 5th millennium BCE. However, many standing stones were first erected, subsequently collapsed, and then re-erected during the following three millennia. The excavation of the site of an apparently in situ statue-menhir at Cruz de Cepos in NE Portugal provided the rare opportunity in Iberian prehistory to apply radiocarbon and luminescence techniques to establish the date of construction. On the basis of the iconography, the standing stone was assigned to a sculptural tradition of north-western and western Iberia, loosely dated to the Early/Middle Bronze Age (ca. 2000/1900–1250 BCE). The optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) and dosimetry characteristics of quartz extracted from sediment samples taken from locations associated with the socket pit and surrounding backfilling deposits were examined, producing OSL single grain ages at eight locations. Comparison of the OSL and calibrated radiocarbon ages shows very good agreement, with the mid-3rd millennium BCE dates confirming original erection during the Copper Age and not a much later transformation of the monument. These encouraging results indicate that OSL has the potential to provide reliable dating of depositional processes related to the construction process and is suitable for wider application to megalithic monuments of this type.

Megalithic structure from Burabay: Gold mining and cult communities of the Late Bronze Age of Northern Kazakhstan

The article presents the results of the research conducted at the megalithic monument located in the Burabay district of the Akmola region of the Republic of Kazakhstan. The monument received the name “Taskamal” (from the Kazakh language “Stone fortress”) from local residents and tourists due to its monumentality and characteristic masonry of granite blocks. The research focused on recording the architecture of the monument and understanding its cultural and chronological affiliation. The megalithic structure with a complex layout inscribed into the terrain. The study provides data on its key architectural elements - a long megalithic wall made of granite boulders, an embankment central platform, two ramps, an external platform, stone steles, relief images, quarries and a workshop. Analogies of individual elements of the complex, the construction techniques and its archaeological features, including depiction of a laying bull, allow us to preliminary date the object to the 2nd millennium BCE. We believe that the complex could be associated with the gold mining activities in Burabay during the Late Bronze Age and possibly was a place of worship for the miners.

The Levantine Megalithic Building Techniques: A Groundbreaking Method Applied to Menjez’s Monuments (Akkar, Lebanon) from the 4th–3rd Millennium BCE

The aim of this paper is to present the methodology used to study the megalithic architecture of Menjez’s monuments (Akkar, Lebanon), as part of the MEG-A Project - “First megalith builders in the northern Levant” (2022–2025). Twenty-four monuments have been investigated since 2018. The primary objective is to pioneer a comprehensive understanding of the unique Levantine megalithic building techniques and re-establish the “chaînes opératoires,” by determining the builders’ sequence of actions. This groundbreaking methodology originally developed for Western European megalithic monuments, notably in Brittany, France, has been innovatively applied and customized to suit the Levantine context, specifically focusing on the distinctive basaltic monuments of Menjez and its surrounding areas. By using photogrammetry as a tool, the researchers are able to de-construct the megalithic architecture by analyzing the different components of these monuments. Moreover, it is then possible to describe monoliths according to their place within the monument and their geological and geomorphological features. Our work has led us to consider the symbolic aspect expressed in the megalithic architecture of Menjez. Employing this groundbreaking methodology not only yields concrete answers regarding the typology of these monuments but also dramatically reshapes our perception of their construction. It establishes a precise relative chronology for the various architectural phases and, most significantly, reveals the hidden details of the raw material supply chain.

Content validation through expert judgement of web-based megalithic culture visualization

Content validation through expert judgement of web-based megalithic culture visualization

Structural Assessment of Late Neolithic Sa Covaccada Dolmen, Sardinia, Italy

ABSTRACT The application of structural engineering tools to archaeological sites is unusual, while architects, archaeologists, and restorers are more commonly involved in these scenarios. Nevertheless, it can provide valuable indications for conservation and repair. This paper presents the structural assessment of the late Neolithic Sa Covaccada Dolmen, in Sardinia, Italy, regarded as a unicum in the Region and one of the most important megalithic monuments in the Mediterranean area. Due to severe material deterioration and extensive crack pattern, structural stability is a primary concern, yet it has not been assessed to date. To address this, both analytical rigid body analyses and 2D and 3D discrete element simulations were performed, contributing to an as challenging as fascinating multidisciplinary restoration project.

Permukiman Megalitikum dan Budaya Kubur Batu di Kampung Nuabari, Desa Lenandareta, Kecamatan Paga, Kabupaten Sikka

Title: Megalithic Settlements and Rock Burial Culture in Nuabari Village, Lenandareta Village, Paga Sub-district, Sikka District
 Technological developments have a broad impact on all elements of human life, including society's mindset and views. In the past, all activities in human life were carried out manually, but nowadays all human activities are carried out using modern technology and equipment. The impact of technological developments also reaches all residential areas of society. Modernization has become a lifestyle and part of urban society, whereas in rural areas it has only spread to certain aspects. This also happens in East Nusa Tenggara, especially in Nuabari Village, Sikka Regency, which is known as a megalithic village with a stone grave culture. The stone grave culture is a megalithic culture that is still maintained by the Lio tribe, an indigenous tribe that lives in Nuabari Village. The settlement pattern of Nuabari Village still reflects the megalithic residential layout pattern with several typical traditional houses and the placement of ceremonial courtyard areas. The influence of modernization cannot be separated from the lives of the people in Nuabari Village. The impact can be seen in the use of materials and modified forms in some of the residential buildings of the Nuabari Village community. This can raise concerns about the process of erosion of socio-cultural philosophical values which should be the attraction and cultural heritage of megaliths in the Kampung Nuabari settlement.

Creating World Views: Work-Expenditure Calculations for Funnel Beaker Megalithic Graves and Flint Axe Head Depositions in Northern Germany

Abstract The creation, maintenance, and modification of prehistoric built spaces and structural landscapes required communities that engaged and interacted collectively. Starting from the appearance of early monumentality and depositional behaviour in Funnel Beaker communities, we trace the variation in this phenomenon among three study areas in what is now northern Germany. In doing so, we build on a specific perspective and approach, namely that of work-expenditure calculations for megalithic graves and flint axe heads. In the process, variable dynamics of construction and deposition activities within the Early and Middle Neolithic are revealed, which we regard as differentiated translations of widespread impulses, adapted to the needs of different socio-cultural communities. The similar developments seen in flint axe head depositions and in the construction of megalithic monuments are indicative of evolving spaces of memory, landscapes of cooperative collaboration, and an increasing structuring of local environments that seem to follow a specific understanding of, and interaction with, space.