Medium-sized Countries Research Articles

Peru’s leadership in the Lima Group: emergence and failure (2015–2021)

This research seeks to understand the factors that enabled Peru, a medium-sized country in Latin America, to take on a leadership role in the creation and development of the Lima Group—a multilateral mechanism whose main objective was to find a resolution to the democratic crisis in Venezuela—as well as the subsequent failure of this leadership. Using the analytical tools provided by Neoclassical Realism, this study argues that Peru’s leadership was made possible not only by the growing importance of the Venezuelan crisis on the international agenda since 2015 but also by changes in regional and global power dynamics. These shifts allowed a country like Peru to exercise such leadership and garner greater interest from the United States. Additionally, the presence of a favorable domestic political climate and clear national interests led the Peruvian government to view this leadership as beneficial, not only for the region but also for Peru itself. However, despite the Venezuelan crisis remaining on the international agenda due to Nicolás Maduro’s continued hold on power, the hardening of the U.S. stance on Venezuela and political changes at the regional level since 2018 fractured the Lima Group and undermined Peru’s leadership. Moreover, domestically, political changes led to heightened instability, weakening Peru’s external position. Finally, the surge in Venezuelan migration and the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic shifted the priorities of Peru’s foreign policy, diminishing its focus on the Venezuelan crisis and contributing to the failure of its leadership.

Technological hedging and differentiated responses of Southeast Asian countries to U.S.–China technological competition: a case study on artificial intelligence (AI)

The rise of artificial intelligence (AI), represented by ChatGPT, has triggered a new wave of technological competition between nations. Major powers like China and the United States, backed by abundant resources, dominate the discourse and hold a significant advantage in the AI field. However, as the technological rivalry between these two countries intensifies, AI represents a classic ‘double-edged sword’ for many small and medium-sized countries. Therefore, the core argument of this paper is that the AI policies of small and medium-sized countries are not simply about bandwagoning or depending on major powers. At their core, these policies represent a complex form of technological hedging. External security concerns drive small and medium-sized countries to adopt hedging as a primary strategy, while internal interest preferences influence the varying intensities of this technological hedging. The findings of this paper indicate that small countries’ technological policies can be categorized into three models: strong hedging, medium hedging, and weak hedging. Different paths of technological hedging reflect the rational balance these nations make between security and economic interests in different contexts. The case of AI development in ASEAN also demonstrates the significant imbalance between member states. Singapore is classified as a technological frontrunner, while Malaysia, Indonesia, and Vietnam are categorized as followers. Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar, Thailand, Brunei, and the Philippines are considered latecomers in the field of AI. In terms of specific AI policies, Singapore and Vietnam adopt a strong technological hedging strategy, seeking more cooperation and interaction with the U.S. or other countries due to caution and concerns about China’s technological security. Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and the Philippines follow a medium hedging strategy, while Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Brunei adopt a weak hedging approach. The differences in hedging intensity are primarily due to varying internal legitimacy pathways and the strength of backup resources. ASEAN member states pursue different technological paths based on their own circumstances to promote AI development.

Direct determination of chronic myeloid leukemia prevalence in Lombardy-Italy: Global implications.

Lombardy represents the largest region of Italy by population, with almost 10 million residents, a dimension similar to a medium size country like Sweden or Belgium. The CML subcommittee of the Lombardy Hematology Network (REL-CML) conducted a study at the beginning of 2023. Prevalence was calculated by direct input from the 21 centers participating in REL-CML. Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors (TKI) prescription records collected from the ARIA regional registry were used to estimate the number of CML patients followed in smaller centers not participating in REL-CML. A total of 2285 patients were registered, representing a prevalence of 0.23 ‰. These data were compared to a similar census conducted in 2005, at the beginning of the TKI era, where a prevalence of 0.029‰ was calculated. This indicates that an almost 10 times increase took place during this period of time. Imatinib represents the most frequently prescribed first-line TKI; its use in 2022 still represented 75% of total first line prescriptions. An increased concentration of the care of CML patients in specialized REL centers with a decreased dispersion of patients in small centers was also evident over this 18year period of time. Nineteen % of patients discontinued treatment, highlighting persisting logistical and biological challenges; one some recommendations on CML management are included to this aim.

The Clashes Within: How Do Thai Government Agencies and NGOs View China’s Rise?

Abstract: Thailand’s development has been influenced by numerous factors, one of which is its interplay with China. However, the Thai government and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) hold different perspectives on China’s role in the Mekong subregion and Thailand. This article aims to analyze the differences in views between the Thai government and NGOs regarding China’s rise in four key areas: the environment, infrastructure development, the economy, and the political rivalry between China and the United States. I argue that Thai officials perceive China’s ascent as an opportunity. It provides Thailand, as a medium-sized country, with more opportunities to receive assistance and engage in trade. Additionally, China can help balance the power of the United States. Conversely, NGOs view China’s rise in the region as a problematic phenomenon.

Measuring Public Preferences for Strategic Choices in an Era of Great Power Competition: Taiwan as a Case Study

As the U.S.–China relationship tilts toward competition and confrontation, scholars and policymakers have focused on the strategic choices faced by the citizens of small and medium-sized countries caught between the two great powers. However, methodological deficiencies remain in how public preferences for these strategic choices are measured. This paper attempts to fill this gap by developing a new means of measuring public opinion regarding strategic choices. Using survey data collected in Taiwan in March 2023, we demonstrate how this measure is constructed and why it aligns more closely with the theoretical concept of strategic choices. Our findings indicate that preferences for different strategies in Taiwan follow a U-shaped distribution that is centered either on hedging with the United States or with China. Multivariate analyses show that factors such as the threat of China, the U.S. security commitment to Taiwan, skepticism toward the United States, confidence in Taiwan’s military, and partisanship are all correlated with public preferences for different strategies. This paper helps us understand these preferences among citizens in small and medium-sized countries and contributes to the literature on public opinion, international relations theory, and policymaking.

Applications of Fractional Order Logistic Grey Models for Carbon Emission Forecasting

In recent years, global attention to carbon emissions has increased, becoming one of the main drivers of global climate change. Accurate prediction of carbon emission trends in small and medium-sized countries and scientific regulation of carbon emissions can provide theoretical support and policy references for the effective and rational use of energy and the promotion of the coordinated development of energy, environment, and economy. This paper establishes a grey prediction model using the classical Logistic mathematical model in a determined environment to investigate the carbon emission system. At the same time, we use the basic principle of fractional-order accumulation to establish a grey prediction model with fractional-order Logistic and obtain the parameter estimation and time-response equation of the new model by solving the model through the theory related to fractional-order operators. The particle swarm optimization algorithm is used to complete the optimization process of the order of the fractional order grey prediction model and obtain the optimal model order. Then, the new model is applied to predict carbon emissions in five medium-emission countries: Ethiopia, Djibouti, Ghana, Belgium, and Austria. The new model shows better advantages in the validity analysis process, and the simulation results indicate that the new model proposed in this paper has stronger stability and better simulation and prediction accuracy than other comparative models, proving the model’s validity. Finally, the model is used to forecast the carbon emissions of these five countries for the five years of 2021–2025, and the results are analyzed, and relevant policy recommendations are made.

ASEAN, Russia's invasion of Ukraine and the politics of pragmatism

Abstract The timid response of member governments of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) to Russia's invasion of Ukraine has puzzled many western observers as it flagrantly violates the most basic norms of international law to which ASEAN expressly subscribes. This article seeks to provide answers to this puzzle. Informed by practice theory, the article transcends conventional realist explanations of how small and medium-sized countries respond to great power politics. Combining material and cognitive arguments, practice theory allows identifying the cultural and ideational roots of these policies and uncovering mismatches between rhetoric and agency. It suggests that, conceptualized as communities of practice, ASEAN member countries' foreign policy elites have developed a path-dependent pragmatism, which guides their response to great power politics and hence the war in Ukraine. Employing a qualitative mixed-methods approach, the empirical part of the article examines how south-east Asia's diplomatic communities of practice define pragmatism and shows that, historically, pragmatism has strongly guided their foreign policies. It traces ASEAN governments' pragmatic responses to the war in Ukraine at three levels: the national, regional and the (global) multilateral level. The article concludes that liberal proselytism does not help the West to win over ASEAN member countries to support its pro-Ukraine course.

한국의 대브라질 수출의 주요 특성에 관한 연구

Purpose - The Korean economy has been growing rapidly with Five-Year Economic Development Plans since the 1960s. It is generally accepted that foreign trade has been a key factor in the rapid growth of the economy. Initially, the growth of Korean exports was concentrated in a small number of countries. Over time, this high concentration became a threat to the stable growth of the Korean economy. This was the main reason why the need for Korean export diversification emerged.
 Design/Methodology/Approach - Most analyses of Korea's foreign trade by Korean researchers have focused on total exports and important countries. On the other hand, there are not many studies on other small and medium-sized countries. With the recent publication of several papers on Korea's exports to Brazil, it is now possible to examine the characteristics of Korean exports to the Brazilian market as a part of diversification of exports.
 Findings - Integrating four recent papers on Korean exports to Brazil, Chapter 3 discusses their main characteristics; the process of Korean penetration into the Brazilian market, the changes in export trends from Korea to Brazil, the relationship between Korean exports to Brazil, and the Brazilian macroeconomic policy/situation, as well as others.
 Research Implications - Despite the limitations of analyzing only one country, Brazil, this paper not only sheds new light on various characteristics of Korean exports to the Brazilian market, but also suggests new approaches and analytical methods for future research on Korea's foreign trade and export diversification.

A World of a Thousand Independent Regions: Confronting the Ever-Increasing Refugee Problem

Based on Pattern 1 “Independent Regions” in the book <em>A Pattern Language</em> by Alexander et al. (1977), we investigate a fundamental socio-spatial alternative for reorganizing our world, countries, and metropolitan regions. When put into the context of large worldwide problems, such as climate change, nuclear danger, pandemics, overpopulation, and refugee crises, the innovative idea of “independent regions” presents itself as a promising alternative to the current imbalance of few large and dominant countries in contrast to a wide majority of smaller and medium-sized countries. Working on the development of a refugee pattern language (RPL), this alternative can help to solve larger worldwide problems including the human-made refugee problem. In RPL pattern “3.2 A World of Independent Regions,” we explore this bottom-up alternative based on fundamental principles with an ideal population size for governing itself democratically and equity among regions in a world community. Other considerations include the potential to reduce the root problem of refugee creation of big countries vs. small counties, in cooperation with independent regions, and world regions. Updating this concept involves considering suggestions and new ideas that might make the outcome richer in overlaps, assembly, and scope. The relevance and vision of this concept and pattern are probably most visible and needed in the current turmoil of a transforming world.

The COVID-19 Crisis, National Innovation Systems, and World Development

In this think-piece, I reflect on what lessons innovation scholars and innovation policymakers in the developing world can draw from the COVID-19 crisis. While it has confirmed the fundamental importance of science and technology in coping with a major global challenge, it has also shown its limitations and the importance of institutions and organisational capabilities. While the crisis has demonstrated the necessity to build stronger national innovation systems (NSI) in the South, it has also simultaneously shown the need to go beyond national governance and move in the direction of a global innovation system. The COVID-19 crisis has reinforced new trends in technology and in global competition that challenge innovation system theory and innovation policy. The crisis stimulated the application and development of artificial intelligence and accelerated the concentration of intellectual capital in a handful of tech giants located in the US and China. While the volume of trade in digital services kept growing, there was a dramatic fall in the volume of global value chain trade in tangibles. These developments intensified the China-US rivalry and undermined transnational collaborations in science and technology. Countries in the South aiming at building stronger national innovation systems need to do so under new circumstances, where artificial intelligence is emerging as a strategic technology, where intellectual monopolies harvest data worldwide, where great powers are engaged in technological rivalry, and where linking up with global value chains for tangibles has become less of an option. One implication is that the issue of scale has become more critical than before; groupings of small and medium-sized countries need to integrate economically and politically in order to develop crucial digital capabilities and competitiveness. Such moves in the direction of forming transnational innovation systems are consonant with strategies to cope with global challenges.

Actualization of Western Hegemonic Concepts and Ways of Their Implementation: on the Issue of the Policy of “Double Standards” of Western Countries

The article analyzes historical examples of the XX–XXI centuries, showing inconsistent, contradictory foreign policy of “double standards” of Western countries. The sources of such a policy are: a) the dominance of their own economic and geopolitical interests over the interests of small and medium-sized countries of less economically developed societies; b) reproducing colonial thinking and concepts of hegemonism, which currently determine the political decisions of Western countries; c) attempts to return the world to a unipolar model, putting in economic and military-political dependence on other countries. The example of the “US National Security Strategy” shows how these policies are manifested and consolidated in state strategic documents.

Biodiversity of Bulgaria: Characteristics, protection and trends

Bulgaria is a medium-sized country located in the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula. It hosts a rich mycota, flora and fauna, and quite well preserved natural and semi-natural ecosystems. This is mostly due to the country's geographic position between the temperate and subtropical zones, the complex geological history, and the big topographic variety. The high species diversity and endemism determine the high conservation value of Bulgarian biodiversity. The Bulgarian flora consist of more than 4,100 species, including more than 45 species of ferns, 250 species of mosses, and 2,800 higher plant species. The animals established in the country belong to 28 phyla and 75 classes. Vertebrates (858 species) comprise 2.7% of the Bulgarian fauna: 242 fishes and fish-like taxa; 24 amphibians; 40 reptiles; 452 birds; and 101 mammal species. Invertebrates account for more than 31,000 species. Over the past 25 years the number of known animals in the country has increased by over 4,500 species: from 29,000 in 1996 to 33,545 species in 2020. The total number of endemic animals is about 1,400 (4.2%). In some groups, the percentage of endemism is very high (95.5% of snails from the family Hydrobiidae and 71% of Clausiliidae; 53.6% of Diplopoda; 50.0% of terrestrial Isopoda). The richest endemic areas in Bulgaria are mostly in the mountains: Rila Mt.- 268, Pirin Mt. - 220, Western Stara Planina Mt. - 184, Western Rhodopes Mts - 183, and the Central Stara Planina Mt. – 181. Molecular data for Bulgarian animals is still insufficient, although Bulgaria ranks among the top 10 European countries in the proportion of the DNA-barcoded animal taxa; sequence coverage of animal specimens in Barcode of Life data System (BOLD) amounts to approximately 36,000 sequences from more than 7,100 Barcode index numbers (BINs). Bulgaria is part of large-scale initiatives of the European research infrastructure such as the Distributed System of Scientific Collections (DiSSCo) and the MOBILISE COST Action, with mass digitization of museum collections currently underway. Legislation to protect nature in Bulgaria dates back to the end of the 19th century and covers forestry (1890), the protection of certain species (1890's) and hunting (1897). Organized civil movements resulted in the establishment of the Union of Nature Protection (1928), the designation of several nature reserves (1933), and the first National Park (1934). More specific regulation followed with Ordinance for the Protection of Nature (1936). The Red Data Book of Bulgaria was published as early as 1984 (vol. 1, Plants) and 1985 (vol. 2, Animals), with a second updated edition in 2011. Bulgaria is also among the first countries to prepare a National Strategy for Biodiversity Protection (1993, adopted in 1998) following the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) process. Since then, several national plans for protection of biodiversity have been adopted including assessments of the threats, objectives, and measures for their achievement. According to recent references, such as the Red Data Book (Beshkov 2011) and the Article 17 reports of 2014 and 2020, the main threats to biodiversity in Bulgaria at the beginning of the 21st century have been human induced degradation: fragmentation and loss of habitats; industrial, agricultural and household waste pollution; direct exploitation of biological resources; genetic ingression and invasive alien species; and global climate change effects. A set of drivers for the loss of biodiversity is related to agriculture and land management, including the whole spectrum from intensification to the abandonment of traditional land, and wetland management practices.

드론전투체계 발전방향 - 아제르바이잔-아르메니아 전쟁을 중심으로 -

The drone’s performance in Azerbaijan-Armenia war showed a new aspect of war: drone war. Therefore, this study analyzed the results of Azerbaijan-Armenia war to derive implications that even small and medium-sized countries such as Azerbaijan can use drones in a wide range and aggressively as a game changer of battlefield. In addition, the acquisition systems and operation methods for drones of Azerbaijan and the Republic of Korea were compared in this study. Through this, we analyzed the drone combat system in the ROK and suggested the development direction of the operational concept and structure for drones, the improvement of the drone acquisition system, etc. Amid the changes in troop reduction and defense reform, the drone combat system is an inevitable option. In addition, in order to cope with the threats of North Korea and neighboring countries in the future, drone combat system has to be adopted and its development is necessary.

The National Innovation System in a catching-up country: empirical evidence based on micro data of a Triple Helix in Poland

Research background: There are two main directions for the research of the national innovation system (NIS): the international comparison of macro data from national statistic offices or specific micro research restricted mostly to analysing selected issues. There is a lack of empirical studies regarding the national innovation system as a whole based on micro raw data and using statistical models. Purpose of the article: To identify and evaluate the impact of the triple helix (an input and output approach) on the NIS in Poland, including internal interactions between industry, science and government. Methods: A questionnaire surveys were conducted by the authors over the past five years in 6,284 manufacturing enterprises. The multifactor stepwise logistics regression forward was used to evaluate what, where and how effectively the NIS institutions in catching-up and medium-sized countries such as Poland are working. Findings & value added: The NIS of Poland is a complicated and non-mature system. Some parts of the network are effective, while others are not. It is noted that cooperation between enterprises stimulates innovation to a greater extent than cooperation with scientific institutions and public administration. The vertical supply chain is the main driver of NIS in Poland. Domestic scientific institutions have an impact that is often short-term, fragmented, and non-continuous, though it can be strong from time to time. Strangely, organizations with low knowledge potential support industry innovation activity more efficiently and in a more organised way than science institutes, excluding foreign ones. For catching-up countries, this is an important bridging of the knowledge gap - it turns out that the quantity and quality of domestic knowledge in the national innovation system is inefficient. Scientific institutions need to achieve sufficient critical mass to stimulate innovative activity. The value of the conclusions is underlined by the fact that the analyses were based on micro data, which allowed to capture the relationships between the different elements of the triple helix.

ВІДПОВІДАЛЬНІСТЬ ЗА ПОРУШЕННЯ ВИМОГ ЩОДО ОБІГУ ВІРТУАЛЬНИХ АКТИВІВ В УКРАЇНІ

The article considers the issue of the level of responsibility established by the state for violation of the requirements for the circulation of virtual assets. When states and their national currencies are weak, virtual assets can even completely replace local currencies. Such states will try to protect themselves from such a prospect. If countries are large, their currencies are used internationally, then cryptocurrencies will not be able to move national currencies. Therefore, without this fear, large states will quickly develop the cryptocurrency market, introduce opportunities for settlements in cryptocurrencies, banks will open accounts in them. Small and medium-sized countries also do not go anywhere and catch up with large ones, but still lag behind them. One of the general trends will be increased transparency of transactions. Control will be established for those who transfer funds as the transfer takes place. The EU is already working on the openness of cryptocurrency wallets. In the beginning, cryptocurrency was massively used by criminal elements. However, this trend is already declining. Criminals realized that all transactions in the blockchain remain forever. If it turns out that the wallet belonged to a certain person, law enforcement officers will be able to collect all the information that operations passed through it. Even if after these operations the wallet was inactive for several years. The Parliament of Ukraine adopted on 17.02.2022 the Law of Ukraine “On Virtual Assets” No. 2074-IX (hereinafter referred to as the Law 2074) [4], which was signed by the President of Ukraine on 15.03.2022, after the changes were taken into account, according to his previously submitted proposals. In addition, the Parliament of Ukraine on 13.03.2022 registered the draft law No. 7150 “On Amendments to the Tax Code of Ukraine on Taxation of Transactions with Virtual Assets”. The purpose of the article is to conduct a study aimed at establishing the level of responsibility and mechanisms for its application, for violation of the requirements for the circulation of virtual assets, which are reflected in the Law of Ukraine “On Virtual Assets”. According to the results of the study, a number of conclusions were made. State regulation of the virtual assets market takes place in the person of the NBU – in relation to the SVA (CV) and the NSSMC – virtual assets other than SVA (CV). The procedure for inspections and liability for different categories of virtual asset circulation service providers is different, and is regulated by various regulatory legal acts of Ukraine. Based on the variety of regulatory adjustion controling the procedure for inspections and the variation of sanctions for violations in the sphere of circulation of virtual assets, there is a possibility of imposing several sanctions by various subjects of inspections (NBU and NSSMC) for the same offense. There are also facts of non-proportional empowerment, where such proportionality should be, between the NBU and the NSSMC.

China's food loss and waste embodies increasing environmental impacts.

Food loss and waste (FLW) hampers global food security, human health and environmental sustainability. However, monitoring and benchmarking FLW reduction is often constrained by the lack of reliable and consistent data, especially for emerging economies. Here we use 6 yr large-scale field surveys and literature data to quantify the FLW of major agrifood products along the entire farm-to-fork chain in China. We show that 27% of food annually produced for human consumption in the country (349 ± 4 Mt) is lost or wasted; 45% of this is associated with postharvest handling and storage and 13% with out-of-home consumption activities. We also show that the land, water, carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus footprints associated with total FLW are similar to those of a medium-sized country (such as the United Kingdom's in the case of carbon footprint). These results highlight the importance of better primary data to inform FLW reduction actions and ensure food security and sustainability.

The Origins of European Security: the Factor of Neutrality in the early 1970s

The article continues to explore a topic of «Sources of European Security».The author analyzes the role of personalities, processes and factors that have influenced the modern European security system, sustainable and variable elements of the transformation of the European segment of international relations. On the basis of documents from the Swiss Federal Archives, this article highlightsthe position of Switzerland and, in some cases, Austria before the start of the substantive discussions of the agreed agenda at the Conference for Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE). The 1970 Moscow Treaty between the USSR and the Federal Republic of Germany and the start of the CSCE process led to the Soviet Union abandoning its longstanding attempts to establish cooperation between the great powers in parallel with the UN structures.The Foreign Minister of the USSR Andrei Gromyko warned against this. Subsequently, the role of the small and medium-sized countries in the two ideological camps increased. The overall picture of interstate relations became more complicated. It is therefore no coincidence that the CSCE is treatedcontroversially in historiography. Considering that transformations are associated with continuous forms, positions, and mechanisms that have been tested over time, the author makes hypotheses and recommendations at the end of the article.

Polish smart power in terms of NGOs activity and intersections between development aid and public diplomacy

Intersections and links between public diplomacy and development aid have so far seldom been a subject of scientific analysis. Development aid as a component of niche diplomacy in the case of medium-sized countries, such as Poland, was eventually noticed by researchers of public diplomacy, and considered in terms of a state’s power. This article presents the results of a study whose goals were to find out in which areas Polish development aid and public diplomacy had common points, what the NGOs’ participation in both fields was, and whether the participation of the non-governmental sector in the implementation of development aid could itself be treated as public diplomacy. Subsequently, the study aimed to establish to what extent those possible common points, supported by NGOs’ activities, could become a Polish specialty, a niche that could be used by Poland in building its smart power. I claimed that public diplomacy is a form of political communication, used in the implementation of foreign policy, in cooperation with non-state actors, and in two contexts: building the image of the state and building its relationships with the international community; Whereas I understand development aid as the entire activity of the donor’s government for supporting developing countries, including humanitarian aid. The aid initiatives are carried out with non-state entities involvement; and the global education as a part of development cooperation is included here too. Referring my study’s assumptions to the concept of J. Pamment concerning three levels of intersections between public diplomacy and development aid, I divided Polish activity into development, humanitarian, and voluntary projects; branding, marketing, promotional and global education activities, and finally the discourse on projects and communication activities. Both public diplomacy and development aid were considered in terms of power. However in the case of development aid, both soft and hard resources were noticed, whereas in public diplomacy—only the soft ones. It prompted me to analyse both areas in terms of smart power, which—according to J.S. Nye’s concept—is understood here as the combination of hard and soft resources. To achieve that I found the methods such as foreign policy analysis (documents content analysis, institutional analysis), case study, desk research, as well as participant observation, to be very useful. It turned out that many areas in which Poland, after joining the European Union in 2004, could build its international social relationships within its smart power have already been taken over by more developed countries. Nevertheless, the results of the study proved that between 2004 and 2012 a successful transformation and democracy promotion became components of Poland’s narrative as a country of smart democratic changes, and Polish NGOs’ significantly participated these processes. Additionally, as a result of my study I proposed the possibility of examining both areas based on NGOs’ activity in terms of Polish smart power, also in the future.

Challenges for Security and Defence Cooperation in Central Europe: Will the EU be able to manage the crisis in the EU periphery?

Europe has undergone various security changes in the past and needs to prepare itself for managing the present and future security challenges appearing on the horizon. Within Central Europe, we can see a significant change in its security orientation and a gradual development by continuous involvement in security initiatives such as the current EU-led PESCO. This article aims to show the present Visegrad Group (V4) interest in maintaining an autonomous European security, as well as to analyse the current possibilities and security capabilities of Central European countries. The V4 countries are an important part of NATO and the European Union, even though they are small to medium-sized countries with limited security capabilities. Participation in the creation of collective security under NATO has a stable, several-year position in the countries, but the European Union is on the rise in its security agenda, and that is assumed by the V4 countries with its participation in EU initiatives such as PESCO and the integrated involvement of the V4 in ongoing military projects.

Bitcoin has an electronic-waste problem

The surging popularity of bitcoin comes at a huge environmental cost. According to the latest analysis of its sustainability, the electronic currency uses as much energy as a medium-sized country and could generate thousands of metric tons of electronic waste per year (Joule 2019, DOI: 10.1016/j.joule.2019.02.007). Users “mine” new bitcoins with customized computer chips that solve cryptography problems and record their ownership of this cryptocurrency in a shared database called a blockchain. As more bitcoins enter circulation—there are currently about 17.5 million of them—it gets progressively harder to mine new coins, requiring more computing power and, therefore, more energy. Alex de Vries, a blockchain specialist at the accountancy firm PricewaterhouseCoopers in Amsterdam, has calculated that bitcoin mining in 2018 used 40–62 TW∙h of energy and had a carbon footprint of 19 million–30 million metric tons (t) of CO2 emissions. Bitcoin already accounts for at least 20% of the energy consumption