Medium-scale Farms Research Articles

Spillover effects of medium- and large-scale farms on smallholder farmers in Tanzania: Evidence from the National Sample Census of Agriculture 2019/20

Tanzania has implemented a number of policies and initiatives to promote the growth of the agricultural sector. Among these are efforts geared toward fostering large-scale farm investments, which is partly premised on the notion that smallholder farmers will also benefit through improved access to factor markets and output markets, better prices, and knowledge transfers. Nevertheless, evidence on such spillover effects is far from clear. To fill this gap, we draw on the 2019/20 National Sample Census of Agriculture to estimate the spillover effects from large and medium-scale farms to smallholder farmers in Tanzania. Using logistic and linear regression models, we find evidence consistent with positive effects from medium-scale farms to smallholder farmers around adoption of improved technologies—particularly the use of improved seeds, organic fertilizer, irrigation, and mechanization—and crop yield. These relationships are more evident for maize farms. We also find evidence consistent with spillover effects from large-scale farms, specifically around the adoption of improved crop technologies and livestock vaccinations. These results add an argument in favor of policies that foster the coexistence of large-, medium-, and small-scale farms.

Prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility of Pasteurella multocida isolated from goats in Can Tho city

A total of 289 goats’ nasal swabs were collected from March to May 2023 to determine the prevalence of Pasteurella multocida in goats raised on medium-scale farms in Can Tho city. There were 143 samples representing 49.48% positive for Pasteurella multocida. Of 143 positive samples, 64 strains were selected to examine the antimicrobial susceptibility using the disk diffusion method. The results showed that those strains were still sensitive to 6/7 examined antibiotics, especially doxycycline (100%); however, they were highly resistant to ampicillin (53.13%). There were 9 phenotypes of antibiotic resistance (60.94%), with the most common patterns of ampicillin and ampicillin + amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (23.44%).By using PCR assay to detect antibiotic resistance genes, the results revealed that sulII gene was the most frequent detection (67.19%). A total of 11 resistance genotypes detected in 54 strains accounted for 84.38%, and the pattern of aadB + sulII was the most common genotype accounting for 23.44%. Therefore, the prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility of P. multocida in goats should be controlled to protect their health and prevent spreading in husbandry environments.

Multi-level framework for optimal operation of gasifier system utilising crop residues from small and medium-scale farms

Lack of techno-economic framework for optimal gasification and the identification of critical parameters for optimal operations is one of the major challenges restricting the gasification of crop residues. This study aims to develop an optimal techno-economic framework for the gasification of crop residues from clustered small/medium-scale farms. The developed model was applied to a case study in Adiembra, a farming community for a 10-kW gasifier engine system. Eight scenarios of individual feedstock and their blends were considered. The results revealed specific fuel consumption ranging from 1.79 – 3.53 kg/kWh. The economic analysis showed marginal profitability except for rice husk and straw which are not profitable. At the current grid electricity price, the minimum level of subsidies required to ensure the financial viability of the feedstocks is within the range of 30 – 70 % of the investment cost based on the various feedstock scenarios considered. The study revealed individual feedstocks with the best technical and economic prospects for optimal gasification to be cocoa pod husk, maize stalk and husk, maize cobs, rice straw and rice husk in the order of best to worst. The use of feedstock blends generally improved the overall syngas characteristics and financial viability. A total number of farms ranging between 107 – 532 are required to be clustered within a radius of 0.74 – 2.12 km with a cluster radius greater than 3.91 km not being financially viable. The fraction of each feedstock type in the blends were optimised with corresponding increase in syngas generation within the range of 9 – 35 % and decrease in the required number of farms within the range of 30 – 57 %. The outcome of the study demonstrates that sustainable gasification of crop residues for minigrid electricity generation requires co-gasification of various residue types, valorisation of by-products and increase in the current feed-in-tariff rate in Ghana.

Molecular epidemiology and current management of Infectious Spleen and Kidney Necrosis Virus (ISKNV) infection in Ghanaian cultured tilapia

Infectious Spleen and Kidney Necrosis Virus (ISKNV) is globally gaining more attention, due to its highly significant economic impact on the aquaculture industry. In late 2018, unusually high levels of mortality (60–90%) was reported in some intensive tilapia cage culture systems on the Eastern bank of Lake Volta in Ghana. This resulted in the fold-up of several small and medium scale farms. Preliminary investigations confirmed the involvement of ISKNV, a viral pathogen noted for fatal systemic infections in many fish species. As a follow-up on the outbreak situation, and post-mass vaccination of affected fish farms, the need to investigate further the molecular epidemiology and phylogeography of the virus across Lake Volta became paramount. A multiplexed PCR assay to detect the virus and MinION™ nanopore sequencing of the Major Capsid Protein (MCP) were performed to investigate the presence and genotype of ISKNV in tilapia collected from 30 randomly selected farms at various geographical locations. ISKNV was found to be widely distributed across the lake and detected in 80% of farms with a reported average daily mortality of 40%. Fry and juvenile fish were the most affected, and approximately 50% of fish that tested positive were asymptomatic. These apparently healthy fish are likely contributors of virus transmission across farms. Phylogenetic analysis of the MCP revealed that all 35 isolates from 14 different farms distributed across the lake clustered with ISKNV clade I with 100% homology to isolates from the 2019 outbreak strain. Vaccination and heat-shock treatment; the two main specific interventions currently employed to control the viral pathogen have not achieved much success, and ISKNV remains a threat to the growth of the aquaculture industry in Ghana. The outcome of this study can be useful in improving fish health management and biosecurity policies in the aquaculture industry.

Performance and Cost Comparison of Photovoltaic and Diesel Pumping Systems: In Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia

Diesel pumps have extensively used for irrigation water pumping. However, this causes challenges both in terms of economic factors (fuel costs) and environmental impacts (emits air pollution). An alternative solution is using renewable energy sources. In this regard, a battery less solar PV energy system was designed and evaluated was designed and evaluated for the geographic location and metrological data of Dugda woreda, representing the central rift valley of Ethiopia. Performance testing were conducted on sunny days of April month and with time intervals of from 9:00 am to 5:00 pm, again the respective solar radiation ranges between 385.8 to 862.2 W m^(-2) h^(-1). The solar photovoltaic pumping has been evaluated with the head levels of 10, 12, 15, and 18 m. Accordingly the result showed that, PV system size can irrigate a tomato field of 0.33-0.75 ha with a mean daily water use of 8.7 and 17.4 m^3 〖day〗^(-1) at head levels of 10 and 18 meters, respectively. After evaluation, the maximum water flow rate has been at the midday day from 12:00 am to 1:00 pm. Comparative economic evaluation of the solar-powered water pump system and diesel pump devices were done using cycle cost breakdown and the cost of water per unit volume. Thus the long term economics of water pumping using solar photovoltaic and diesel pumping systems showed a cost of 1.33 〖ETB m〗^(-3) and 3 ETB m^(-3), respectively. The result demonstrated that photovoltaic water pump systems are more affordable for the long-term services of small to medium-scale farms than gasoline water pumps.

Study on the appropriate scales of breeding-type family farms from the perspective of quantifying resource losses

ABSTRACT The appropriate sizes of scale-breeding industries are causing increasing attention in that rational scale-breeding industries may both meet the meat demand of the market and avoid serious environmental problems. In this paper, the appropriate scales of breeding-type family farms were studied from the perspective of quantifying resource losses. The mathematical models about quantifying resource losses were built, and then the evaluation index system of resource losses was established. More than one hundred family farms in Sichuan province and Chongqing city of China located in the subtropics were selected as research cases and were classified as small-, medium- and big-scale family farms, whose unit resource losses and resource loss rates were both evaluated by the index system. Results show that the unit resource losses and the resource loss rate of medium-scale family farms are the lowest among these three kinds of family farms. Therefore, medium-scale farms are moderate, and then are recommended for scale-breeding industries.

English

Broiler farming creates wealth for farmers, but the system faces myriad constraints. The objectives of this study were to determine farmer’s willingness to adopt welfare practices, farm biosecurity risks and cost of production from selected farms in Kenya. Primary data were collected using questionnaires from 60 medium-scale and 60 large-scale farms, and secondary data collected on product condemnation and downgrades from a large-scale broiler meat processing factory. Descriptive statistics were computed to estimate level of farm inputs and outputs, while framework analytical approach was used for qualitative data. A bio-economic model was used to estimate gross margins per farm. Medium-scale farmers were willing to forgo 30% of their income to implement welfare practices. The cost of mortality was 24,000 KSH per cycle for large-scale farms and 3,500 KSH for medium-scale farms. Feed accounted for over 60% of production costs in both farming systems, and gross margin per cycle was 548,230 KSH in large-scale farms and 37,890 KSH for medium-scale farms. There was uncontrolled use of antibiotics for treatment of sick broiler chickens in farms. Policy interventions are required to minimize production losses along the broiler value chains, and reduction of risks of disease and antibiotic resistance in connected farms. Key words: Animal welfare, production losses, food safety, antimicrobial use, biosecurity risks.

COMMERCIAL LAYING HEN PRODUCTION AND EGG VALUE CHAIN MAPPING IN NORTHERN ETH

<p><strong>Background:</strong> In Ethiopia, commercial farms have increased in farm size, and the majority of the large-scale poultry farms are concentrated around Addis Ababa the capital city of Ethiopia. <strong>Objective:</strong> To assess poultry production, map value chains and identify major production challenges in Northern Ethiopia. <strong>Methodology:</strong> A multistage sampling technique along with a proportionate sample size determination method was used to fix the sample size. Accordingly, 147, 109 and 64 poultry producers were selected from semi-intensive, small-scale, and medium-scale farms, respectively. Nine focus group discussions comprising relevant stakeholders were conducted. <strong>Result:</strong> The earlier age at first egg-laying in weeks was reported as 16.7 ± 0.93 in the medium-scale production system. A high laying percentage of 85.47 <strong>± </strong>5.01 was recorded in the medium-scale and the highest mortality 23.5 <strong>± </strong>8.8 was in semi-intensive. The price of eggs varied by about +38% in November 2019/2020 and negatively changed price by -22% in May 2019/2020. In a ranking exercise, feed cost, feed quality, product marketing, disease, predator, and lack of information and training were ranked top five. Further risk factors were ranked, accordingly, lack of vaccine, poor biosecurity measures, and management were ranked as major causes. <strong>Implication: </strong>The government and private sector should promote improving the feeding habit of the community and improve the management practice. <strong>Conclusion:</strong> The high price of feed ingredients, limited access to veterinary services, poor market linkages in the value chain, poor feeding habits, and poor extension services aggravated by a lack of awareness of producers were the most important challenges affecting commercial production.</p>

Epidemiological Analysis and Genetic Characterization of Parvovirus in Ducks in Northern Vietnam Reveal Evidence of Recombination.

Simple SummaryWaterfowl parvoviruses are highly contagious lethal pathogens that cause economic loss in the duck production industry. In Vietnam, information is limited on epidemiological and genetic characterization of the viral genome. This study investigated epidemiological characteristics and the further genetic characterization of the viral genome in ducks farmed in northern Vietnam. The results revealed that waterfowl parvovirus was circulating among ducks at a moderately positive rate. The viral strains were clustered with another novel goose parvovirus from China.In total, 130 tissue-pooled samples collected from ducks in some provinces/cities in north Vietnam were examined for waterfowl parvovirus genome identification. Twenty-six (20%) samples were positive for the parvovirus infection, based on polymerase chain reaction analysis. Of the 38 farms tested, 14 (36.84%) were positive for the waterfowl parvovirus genome. The rate of the parvovirus genome detection in ducks aged 2–4 weeks (37.04%) was significantly (p < 0.05) higher than that at ages <2 weeks (9.09%) and >4 weeks (16.30%). The positive rate on medium-scale farms (9.36%) was significantly (p < 0.05) lower than for small-scale (31.03%) and large-scale (29.73%) farms. The lengths of the four Vietnamese waterfowl parvovirus genomes identified were 4750 nucleotides. Among the four Vietnamese parvovirus genomes, nucleotide identities were from 99.29% to 99.87%. Phylogenetic analysis of the near-complete genomes indicated that the waterfowl circulating in northern Vietnam belonged to the novel goose parvovirus (NGPV) group. The Vietnamese NGPV group was closely related to the Chinese group. Recombination analysis suggested that the Vietnam/VNUA-26/2021 strain was generated by a recombination event. One positive selection site of the capsid protein was detected.

Unbalanced fertilizer use in the Eastern Gangetic Plain: The influence of Government recommendations, fertilizer type, farm size and cropping patterns

Intensive cropping systems with diverse cropping patterns present a challenge for nutrient management on smallholder farms. Government-endorsed recommendations for crop fertilizer use are designed to assist farmers achieve profitable and balanced nutrient inputs, but it is unclear how closely farmers follow these recommendations. We identified farmers' current nutrient use gaps (overuse or underuse) relative to the Government-endorsed recommended nutrient doses in two cropping patterns in three representative Agro-ecological Zones of Bangladesh. A total of 330 farms were surveyed in 2019 from three farm size categories (referred to as large-, medium and small-scale) and their gaps in nutrient use were assessed relative to Government-endorsed Fertilizer Recommendation Guides (FRG) published in 2012 and in 2018: FRG-2012 and FRG-2018. The large- and medium-scale farms used 11-16%, 80-90% and 21-30%, respectively, over-doses of NPK in the cropping season under fully rice-based cropping pattern relative to FRG-2012 recommendations, while the over-dose levels were much lower for small-scale farms. Small-scale farms used much less than recommended S, Mg, Zn, B and organic manure (OM) rates relative to FRG-2012. The FRG-2018, which increased N and K recommendations but decreased the P recommendation for rice crops relative to FRG-2012, shows that all farms can decrease the dose of P (by 50%) while small-scale farms need to increase the dose of N (7%), K (16%), S (20%) and to apply Zn in the fully rice-based cropping pattern. On the other hand, the farms could greatly reduce NPK (19%, 86% and 44%, respectively) use while increasing S (14%), Mg, Zn, B and OM use relative to FRG-2018 in the pattern with the high-value potato crop. To increase crop profitability, enhance food security and save Government treasury in the Eastern Gangetic Plain enabling approaches are needed to effectively communicate the benefits of balanced nutrient use practices to farmers.

Comparative energy use in cassava production under different farming technologies in Kwara State of Nigeria

One of the main components of production expenses in agricultural operations is energy. The effectiveness of its application is frequently impacted in favor of other equally important aspects. The energy utilization in cassava production in three distinct farm sizes and technologies in Kwara State, Nigeria, was investigated using parametric equations. Questionnaires were used to obtain data on output from 175 cassava farmers. Farms were separated into three groups: group 1 (no mechanization), group 2 (partial mechanization), and group 3 (complete mechanization) (full mechanization). There were 92 farms in Group 1 (1–5 ha), 54 farms in Group 2 (6–15 ha), and 29 farms in Group 3 (16–50 ha). Human labor, machinery, diesel fuel, chemicals, seed, and fertilizers as inputs influenced cassava yield. Cassava production used 4904.87 MJ/ha/tonne in small-scale farms, 36352.04 MJ/ha/tonne in medium-scale farms, and 96257.93 MJ/ha/tonne in large-scale farms, according to the study's findings. In the study region, the average energy output of cassava production was 107,632 MJ/ha, 604,800 MJ/ha, and 2,016,000 MJ/ha in the various farms. The energy input-output ratios for the three types of farms were calculated to be 16.13, 16.69, and 20.94 respectively. The Cobb–Douglas function was used to calculate the impacts of inputs on cassava outputs. In medium and large-scale farms, indirect and non-renewable energy contributed significantly more to yield than direct and renewable energy. Human labor, fertilizers, chemicals, and seed were statistically significant contributors to cassava productivity, according to empirical findings.

Can medium‐scale farms support smallholder commercialisation and improve welfare? Evidence from Nigeria

AbstractIn spite of mounting evidence about the growth of medium‐scale farms (MSFs) across Africa, there is limited empirical evidence on their impact on neighbouring small‐scale farms (SSFs). We examine the relationships between MSFs and SSFs, with particular focus on the specific mechanisms driving potential spillover effects. First, we develop a theoretical model explaining two propagating mechanisms: learning effects (training) and cost effects (reduced transactions cost). An empirical application to data from Nigeria shows that SSFs with training from MSFs tend to use higher levels of modern inputs (have higher productivity), and receive higher prices and income. The results also show that purchasing inputs from MSFs reduces the costs of accessing modern inputs and is associated with higher inorganic fertiliser use by SSFs. Our results suggest that the benefits of receiving training and purchasing inputs from MSFs are particularly important for very small‐scale producers, operating less than 1 hectare of land. This implies that policies which promote the efficient operation of MSFs and encourage their interaction with SSFs can be an effective mechanism for improving the productivity and welfare of smallholder farms, hence reducing their vulnerability to extreme poverty.

Broiler production systems in Ghana: economics and the impact of frozen chicken imports

Chicken meat consumption in Ghana has significantly increased in the last two decades. However, production has stagnated, and domestic producers are struggling to satisfy the local market. Consequently, Ghana is dependent on chicken imports. The imports have attracted criticism as they are believed to be negatively affecting producers. This paper uses typical farms to analyze broiler production systems in Ghana and the impact of chicken imports. The typical farms represent the most common broiler production systems in the most important producing regions (Accra, Kumasi, and Dormaa). Large-scale integrated, medium-scale, and small-scale production systems were identified as the most common broiler production systems. The study demonstrates that feed and day-old chick costs are the most significant production cost items. The study also shows that broiler production is profitable for all systems when only considering cash-costs. Medium-scale farms located in Dormaa are unprofitable in the medium and long-term, when depreciation and opportunity costs are reflected, respectively. Cost comparisons show that imports make it difficult for broiler producers to market their chickens in the local market throughout the whole year. Therefore, broiler production in Ghana is seasonal. Furthermore, small-scale producers are the most negatively affected by the competition from the imports.

Financial viability of commercial dairy farms established under the third phase of the dairy-cattle importation project in Sri Lanka

The financial viability of dairy farms, established under the third phase of the Dairy-Cattle Importation Project in Sri Lanka, is assessed in this study. The data were obtained from a primary survey. The results of the Stochastic Frontier Approach revealed that the mean technical efficiency of farms was 44.9%. The average milk production of these farms was found to be lower than the expected production and the average cost of production of milk was higher than the average farm-gate price. Even though the financial performance of medium-scale farms was marginally better than the small-scale and large-scale farms, the difference was not statistically significant. The study indicates the need and the potential to improve the production efficiency of dairy farms established under the Dairy Cattle Importation Project to make them financially viable.

Changing Farm Size Distributions and Agricultural Transformation in Sub-Saharan Africa

We review the literature on the distribution of farm sizes in sub-Saharan Africa, trends over time, drivers of change in farm structure, and effects on agricultural transformation and present new evidence for seven countries. While it is widely viewed that African agriculture is dominated by small-scale farms, we show that medium-scale farms of 5 to 100 hectares are a nontrivial—and rapidly expanding—force that is influencing the nature and pace of food systems transformation in Africa. The increased prevalence of medium-scale holdings is associated with farm labor productivity growth and underappreciated benefits to smallholder farmers. However, the rise of African investor farmers is also contributing to the commodification of land, escalating land prices, and restricted land access for most local people. A better understanding of these trends and linkages, which requires new data collection activities, could help resolve long-standing policy debates and support strategies that accelerate agricultural transformation.

LEVEL OF ALLOCATIVE EFFICIENCY ESTIMATION OF IRRIGATED TOMATO PRODUCTION UNDER KANO RIVER IRRIGATION PROJECT (KRIP), NIGERIA

The focus of this study is to analyze the Level of Economic Efficiency of Irrigated Tomato Production under Kano River Irrigation Project (KRIP), Nigeria. A combination of purposive and random sampling techniques were used to select 213 irrigated tomato farmers. Primary data were collected through a well-structured questionnaire. Data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics such as frequency, percentages and data. It was found that the medium and large scale farms emerged as farms with price-efficiency in terms of higher unit profit (0.43) respectively. It can be concluded irrigated tomato farmers in the study area were fairly allocative efficient, suggesting that opportunities for improvement in the allocative efficiency of the respondents. It is recommended that education should be encouraged by extension agents through effective and efficient dissemination of information.

Safety of Retailed Poultry: Analysis of Antibiotic Resistance in Escherichia coli From Raw Chicken and Poultry Fecal Matter From Selected Farms and Retail Outlets in Accra, Ghana.

Purpose:To assess the safety of retailed poultry using the prevalence of antibiotic resistance in Escherichia coli (E. coli), a dominant intestinal microflora.Methods:Two medium-scale farms and 8 well-known retail outlets within the La-Nkwantanang Madina municipality in Accra were purposively selected for sampling from January to March 2020. We randomly sampled raw chicken (n = 25) and poultry fecal matter (n = 50). All samples were immediately transported on ice to the laboratory for analysis within 12 hours after collection. Conventional culture techniques, biochemical tests, and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS) were used for isolation and identification. The antimicrobial susceptibility of isolated E. coli strains (n = 36) was tested using the Kirby Bauer disk diffusion method.Results:Antimicrobial resistance in E. coli ranged from 10.7 % (cefotaxime) to 82.1% (tetracycline) in fecal matter and 0% (gentamicin & cefotaxime) to 62.5% (tetracycline) in chicken. The prevalence of antimicrobial resistant E. coli in fecal samples was higher than in chicken for almost all antibiotics tested, except for cefoxitin, cefuroxime, and ceftazidime. Multidrug resistance was 57.1% in E. coli from fecal samples compared to 62.5% in chicken.Conclusion:The high level of resistance to E. coli in fecal matter is of public health concern because cross-contamination often occurs during slaughter and processing. This calls for close surveillance and strict adherence to Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) principles in the chicken production chain to prevent the transmission of antimicrobial-resistant E. coli strains through the food chain.

Is the Productivity Level of Large-Scale Farms Higher than that of Small- and Medium-Scale Farms?: The Relationship between Farm Size and Its Productivity in Chinese Dairy Farms

Is the Productivity Level of Large-Scale Farms Higher than that of Small- and Medium-Scale Farms?: The Relationship between Farm Size and Its Productivity in Chinese Dairy Farms

Mental Model of Malaysian Pig Farmers in Implementing Disease Prevention and Control Practices.

The 1998 Nipah virus outbreak in Malaysia resulted in major financial losses to the multi-million-dollar swine industry. While productivity and biosecurity of pig farms have improved since, biosecurity in some farms remains substandard with farmers struggling to adapt to current national pig farming policies. Farm viability and animal health depends on farmers' role as decision-makers in managing disease threats and other aspects of farm management. This study aimed to describe the mental model of farmers in making decisions about disease prevention and control measures during the 1998 Nipah virus outbreak, and in 2019, 20 years after the last reported Nipah case. Using a qualitative approach, in-depth, semi-structured interviews with 12 pig farmers (mostly small-scale or medium-scale farms) were conducted in three states in Malaysia. Data were analyzed via inductive content analysis. Thirty-six unique dimensions in the mental model were identified, representing six interrelated themes corresponding to participants' decision making related to disease prevention and control: drivers of action to prevent and control disease; perception of practice options; individual determinants of familiar practices; external social factors; external economic factors; and additional external factors. Key drivers of disease control and prevention responses during the Nipah outbreak included heightened perception of risk, emotions, perceived economic loss, and subjective norms whereas key drivers in 2019 included perception of risk, perceived effectiveness, perceived benefits, and other dimensions such as perception of the future, perceived economic cost, barriers, and loss. An unfavorable future outlook, perceived economic factors, and socio-political and personal factors currently hinders farm improvement and adoption of Pig Farming Areas (PFAs) and Modern Pig Farming (MPF) systems. Private sector service providers and veterinarians are highly influential in advocating for good biosecurity, herd health, and animal health intervention practices. Insights gained can inform the development of strategic policies and interventions.

A revisit of farm size and productivity: Empirical evidence from a wide range of farm sizes in Nigeria.

The relationship between farm size and productivity has been studied extensively in the agricultural and development economics literature. However, most of the documented evidence in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is based on samples of small-scale farms operating 5ha or less, with very little evidence assessing this relationship over a wider range of farm sizes. This omission is especially important considering the rapid expansion of medium-scale farms in much of Africa. This study examines the farm size-productivity relationship over a range of farms between zero and 40ha in Nigeria. It also tests whether there is heterogeneity in productivity within medium-scale farms depending on how they came into being. Using four measures of productivity, empirical estimates reveal a U-shaped relationship where the IR holds between zero and about 22ha, turning positive afterwards. Moreover, when medium-scale farms are distinguished between those who were actively engaged as small-scale farmers and stepped up/expanded their scale of operation and those who were primarily in non-farm employment and later stepped into medium-scale farming, the turning point for farmers who stepped up into medium-scale farming is at 11ha, in contrast to 22ha for those who stepped in. Further evidence suggests heterogeneity in productivity within medium-scale farms depending on whether the owner-operators stepped up or stepped into medium-scale farming. These findings imply that policies facilitating smallholders' ability to expand the scale of their activities could contribute substantially to growth in farm productivity, agricultural commercialization and increase in food security in Nigeria, although in most areas only a small proportion of smallholder households are in a position to do this.