Medium Scale Applications Research Articles

Influence of Bed Medium on Bubbling Fluidized Bed Reactors for Biomass Gasification: Experimental Study

Abstract This research provides a contribution to biomass gasification technology development and to its establishment into the market as mature and functional technology, competitive for large and medium-scale applications. In this article, an experimental analysis of Bubbling Fluidized Bed Reactors (BFBR) for power generation with different sand mixtures is presented. This experimental study is based on a 50 kW and a 10 kW BFBR, respectively, with inner diameters of 10 cm and 22.2 cm. In the experiments, three different bed sands (molochite, silica and alumina) have been tested attending to their properties, such as operating temperatures, bulk density for fluidisation, homogeneous grain size and commercial availability. According to the implemented tests, the obtained results demonstrate that molochite (calcined kaolin) has best effectiveness as bed additive for optimizing the reactor pressure drop, operating temperature, mean particle size and fluidization conditions. On the other side, the most appropriate range for the relation between the sand bed height and the reactor inner diameter to reduce the energy consumption was determined. Finally, the distributor pressure drop and the range of pressured drop were experimentally evaluated.

Physical Cell Disruption Technologies for Intracellular Compound Extraction from Microorganisms

This review focuses on the physical disruption techniques in extracting intracellular compounds, a critical step that significantly impacts yield and purity. Traditional chemical extraction methods, though long-established, face challenges related to cost and environmental sustainability. In response to these limitations, this paper highlights the growing shift towards physical disruption methods—high-pressure homogenization, ultrasonication, milling, and pulsed electric fields—as promising alternatives. These methods are applicable across various cell types, including bacteria, yeast, and algae. Physical disruption techniques achieve relatively high yields without degrading the bioactivity of the compounds. These techniques, utilizing physical forces to break cell membranes, offer promising extraction efficiency, with reduced environmental impacts, making them attractive options for sustainable and effective intracellular compound extraction. High-pressure homogenization is particularly effective for large-scale extracting of bioactive compounds from cultivated microbial cells. Ultrasonication is well-suited for small to medium-scale applications, especially for extracting heat-sensitive compounds. Milling is advantageous for tough-walled cells, while pulsed electric field offers gentle, non-thermal, and highly selective extraction. This review compares the advantages and limitations of each method, emphasizing its potential for recovering various intracellular compounds. Additionally, it identifies key research challenges that need to be addressed to advance the field of physical extractions.

Hydroponics and Synergetic Technologies: A Deep Dive into Small and Medium-Scale Applications

Hydroponics, the practice of soilless plant cultivation, has undergone significant transformation over the years, evolving from its roots in ancient civilizations to its modern, high-tech systems. This paper explores this journey, focusing on technological advancements that have not only refined the principles of hydroponics but have also democratized its accessibility. Early accounts of hydroponic-like practices can be traced back to the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the Floating Gardens of the Aztecs, and historical records in China and Egypt. The formalization of hydroponics, however, took place in the 20th century, although the concept had been introduced much earlier by Sir Francis Bacon in 1627. Technological leaps in nutrient solutions have been pivotal; German botanists Julius von Sachs and Wilhelm Knop's work in 1860 set the scientific basis for soilless culture. Modern hydroponic systems such as Nutrient Film Technique (NFT), Aeroponics, and Deep Water Culture (DWC) employ pumps, timers, and nutrient reservoirs for efficient cultivation. These systems have scaled hydroponics from a lab-scale practice to a commercial-scale operation, making it accessible to both hobbyist gardeners and large-scale agriculturalists. Another transformative development is in the area of hydroponic lighting. High-Pressure Sodium (HPS) and Light Emitting Diode (LED) lights offer sustainable and efficient alternatives to natural light, thus enabling year-round, indoor hydroponic farming. The automation of hydroponic systems via computer-controlled environments has drastically reduced the manual labor required, making it accessible to individuals without specialized horticultural skills. Lastly, the paper delves into synergistic technologies like smart monitoring systems, Internet of Things (IoT), and renewable energy sources that are setting new paradigms for hydroponics. Smart sensors and analytics provide real-time data for nutrient and environmental control, while IoT devices offer remote management capabilities. Renewable energy sources like solar and wind power bring sustainability to hydroponic setups, thereby reducing the carbon footprint. These technologies collectively create an environment that is conducive not just for optimal plant growth, but also for operational sustainability and efficiency.

(Invited) State of Charge Monitoring of Vanadium Flow Batteries Using Spectroscopic and Electrochemical Methods

Vanadium Flow Batteries (VFBs) are a promising energy storage technology, particularly for large and medium scale applications. In a VFB, energy is stored in two vanadium electrolytes separated by a nafion membrane. The use of vanadium electrolytes in both half-cells minimises cross contamination issues which have plagued other flow battery chemistries. The electrodes, electrolytes and membrane are key areas of research for VFBs with the aim of improving efficiency, energy density and costs.Accurately monitoring state-of-charge (SoC) is vital for any rechargeable battery system. It is important to monitor the SoC of both half-cells simultaneously because of imbalances which occur due to side reactions and unwanted vanadium transfer across the membrane. The electrolyte may be rebalanced by various techniques but only if the SoC of each half-cell is accurately known. There are multiple possible techniques to monitor the SoC of each half-cell. We measure SoC in-situ by analysing the absorbance spectra of the vanadium electrolytes as they are charged and discharged. We also accurately measure volume changes throughout the cycle to study the water transfer through the nafion membrane. This accurate SoC data which is obtained will be compared with other SoC techniques. It will also be used to study the performance characteristics of the battery.Acknowledgements:This research was funded by the Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland (Award Number 18/RDD/341).

Development of a low cost open-source ultrasonic device for plant height measurements

Plant height is commonly used to characterize crops in various domains such as plant breeding or precision farming. Despite significant advances in sensing technologies, plant height is still very often measured manually in many research applications where high-throughput alternatives are not always suitable. Here, we have developed a low cost, open-source ultrasonic device for semi-automated plant height measurements in small- to medium-scale applications. The main innovation compared to previous developments is the combination of a low-cost ultrasonic sensor and a plastic backscatter plate to improve plant tip detection. We compared the device to the manual method under controlled laboratory conditions and in a field experiment with 26 sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) inbred lines. The accuracy of the device was close to 1 cm in controlled conditions and 2 cm in the field, and the bias was close to 0 in both cases. In the field, measurements were 42% faster when compared with the classical ruler, and sensor-based values were strongly correlated with ruler-based values (R² = 0.9965). Overall, the device allows significant time savings while maintaining very high accuracy compared to the manual method. Its low cost (∼75 €) and compact design make it suitable for a wide range of applications, either for crop species, natural species, or model organisms. We encourage such implementations by providing all code and materials in free and open access.

Garlic dehydration inside heat exchanger-evacuated tube assisted drying system: Thermal performance, drying kinetic and color index

An experimental investigation was done on an advanced evacuated tube-assisted solar drying system without and with load conditions at various water flow rates (10 L/h, 20 L/h, and 30 L/h) to evaluate its performance analysis. 79.56 °C maximum greenhouse air temperature was recorded without load at 30 L/h water flow rate with an average solar intensity of 850 W/m2. Highest value of drying rate (DR) is 1.48 kgH2O/kg dry solid/h and the maximum efficiency of solar collector (SC) and solar dryer (SD) is 43.62% and 55.28%, respectively, at 30 L/h water flow rate. Garlic was dehydrating from 70% to 8% (wb) moisture content (MC). The maximum exergy efficiency (EE) and minimum exergy loss were 57.64% at 30 L/h water flow rate and 4.58 W at 10 L/h water flow rate. Quality assessment is also carried out for dried garlic samples in the heat exchanger –evacuated tube assisted drying system (HE-ETADS). Color conservation (indices) of dehydrated garlic sample is best in HE-ETADS (Lo = 60.42, ao = −0.92, and bo = 11.54) in comparison to old-style (traditional) drying process (Lo = 58.89, ao = - 0.67, and bo = 5.99). Therefore, the developed drying system represented not only good financial returns but also better product quality. The present system provides interesting options for the entry of this type of collectors in medium-scale applications in the agricultural and industrial sectors.

Clustered Porous Radiant Burner: A cleaner alternative for cooking systems in small and medium scale applications

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) burners in modern days are extensively used in both household as well as in industries. Conventional LPG burners (CB) work on Free Flame Combustion, emit higher emissions and offer low thermal efficiency, and lower turn-down ratio than the burners based on newer technologies like Porous Media Combustion (PMC). Recently a Clustered Porous Radiant Burner (CPRB), working on PMC, was shown to yield higher thermal efficiency and lower emissions compared to a CB (Deb et al., 2020). The present work offers a study on the capability of the CPRB to operate under an extended range of power inputs, and thereby warranting its use in cooking systems for small and medium scale applications. The turn-down ratio and thermal performance (efficiency and emissions) were determined experimentally, while the flame movement was estimated with the help of numerical simulations. The environmental damage reduction ability was analysed using SimaPro LCA software. The CPRB was found to operate under stable submerged combustion mode for the power input range of 8–20 kW. Compared to a CB, CPRB yielded a maximum thermal efficiency improvement of 26% and reduction in the CO, CxHy and NOx emissions of 78.7%, 48.9%, and 74.1%, respectively. The CPRB was capable of saving 3.9 kg fuel per 19 kg commercial cylinder. Because of these advantages, the CPRB is well suited for cooking systems in small and medium scale applications where input power ranges between 8 and 20 kW.

Inter-comparison of several soil moisture downscaling methods over the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, China

Microwave remote sensing is able to retrieve soil moisture (SM) at an adequate level of accuracy. However, these microwave remotely sensed SM products usually have a spatial resolution of tens of kilometers which cannot satisfy the requirements of fine to medium scale applications such as agricultural irrigation and local water resource management. Several SM downscaling methods have been proposed to solve this mismatch by downscaling the coarse-scale SM to fine-scale (several kilometers or hundreds of meters). Although studies have been conducted over different climatic zones and from different data sets with good results, there is still a lack of a comprehensive comparison and evaluation between them to guide the production of high-resolution and high-accuracy SM data. Therefore, in this study we compared several SM downscaling methods (from 0.25° to 0.01°) based on polynormal fitting, physical model, machine learning and geostatistics over the Qinghai-Tibet plateau where there is a wide range of climate conditions from four aspects, that is, comparison with the original microwave product, comparison with in situ measurements, inter-comparison based on three-cornered hat (TCH) method, and a spatial feasibility analysis. The comparison results show that the method based on a physical model, in this case the Disaggregation based on Physical And Theoretical scale Change (DisPATCh) method, has the highest ability on preserving the coarse-scale feature of original microwave SM product, while to some extent, this ability could be a disadvantage for improving the accuracy of the downscaling results. In addition, soil evaporation efficiency (SEE) alone is not sufficient to represent SM spatial patterns over complex land surface. Geostatistics based area-to-area regression Kriging (ATARK) introduces the highest uncertainty caused by the overcorrection during the residual interpolation process while this process can also improve correlation (R) and correct the bias as well as provide more feasible spatial patterns and details. Two machine learning methods, the random forest (RF) and Gaussian process regression (GPR) show high stability on all comparison results but provide smoother spatial patterns. The multivariate statistical regression (MSR) method performs worst due to the fact that its simple linear regression model could not meet the requirement of SM fitting on complicated land surface. Moreover, all five downscaling methods show a declining accuracy after downscaling. This phenomenon may be caused by the spatial mismatch on fine-scale. In addition, this could also be caused by the tendency that downscaled results will usually provide more spatial details from downscaling predictors, while they cannot capture the temporal changes of the microwave SM product well. In general, this phenomenon tends to be more significant over heterogeneous land surface. All in all, five widely used soil moisture downscaling methods were compared based on a comprehensive comparison scheme to add to the body of knowledge in applicability of downcaling methods under different weather conditions.

Hyperspectral Imaging for Fine to Medium Scale Applications in Environmental Sciences

Hyperspectral imaging (HSI) combines conventional imaging and spectroscopic techniques in a way of spatially organized spectroscopy [...]

Direct solar production of medium temperature hot air for industrial applications in linear concentrating solar collectors using an open Brayton cycle. Viability analysis

Medium temperature heat required by industrial processes worldwide is mostly provided consuming fossil fuels. Among renewable energy alternatives, concentrating solar collectors can provide medium temperature heat at decreasing costs, either for medium and small scale applications. Several high energy-demanding processes need hot air in the range 150–400 °C (drying, curing, dehydration, thermal treatments). For such applications, the direct air heating inside linear concentrating solar collectors is investigated in this work. Although is not a common practice, direct heating reduces installation costs and maintenance, eliminating the need for heat transfer fluid and heat exchanger. The theoretical analysis developed indicates its feasibility despite the high pumping power consumption. An innovative system using Brayton cycle is proposed and analyzed. An automotive turbocharger is used to compress inlet air, with a compression ratio from 1.5 to 4, before solar heating up to the technology limit of 600 °C, thus reducing and even avoiding pumping power consumption. Hot air expands through the turbine recovering the compressing power, holding at the outlet suitable temperature for industrial usages in the range of 300–400 °C. No mechanical power at the shaft is expected; instead, turbocharger freewheeling enables to drive air through the collectors without auxiliary energy consumption, configuring a compact solar installation. Numerical results provided support the viability, showing the performances and critical parameters.

Scale-up of ceramic nanofiltration membranes to meet large scale applications

Ceramic nanofiltration (NF) membranes have been used in many small and medium scale applications (10–100 m2/plant) to clean and recycle hot water from partial waste water streams of industrial processes. A couple of large scale applications came up where the membrane will not be economically feasible due to the high membrane and module costs. The increase of the membrane surface per membrane element is the best option to reduce the costs, due to the reduced handling as well as the reduced amount of stainless steel. Final target is to use honeycomb supports with a membrane area of 10 m2/element instead of 0.25 m2/element (conventional 19-channel tubes).The scale-up was performed in 3 stages: 1.3 m2/element, 4.5 m2/element, 10 m2/element. All stages required new handling technologies in all included processing steps due to the size and weight of the elements. In addition, the supports and intermediate layers had to be developed to the same quality level as of the 19-channel tubes to enable the reproducible and defect-free NF-coating. The sol-gel synthesis and membrane inspection had to be scaled up as well.The scale-up to 1.3 m2-elements (151 channels) was successful and has already been transferred to production. A pilot plant containing 180 membrane elements and a total membrane area of 234 m2 has been in operation since January 2017 to clean oily water from oil sand refinery.The scale-up to 4.5 m2-elements (559 channels) was demonstrated in lab-scale in 2017. First pilot tests with single elements are in operation.The scale-up to 10 m2-elements started in April 2017. With about 1200 channels, it will no longer be possible to get the permeate out from the inner channels. That is why a part of the channels will be plugged on the feed and retentate sides and slit on the permeate side.

A decentralized biomass torrefaction reactor concept. Part I: Multi-scale analysis and initial experimental validation

A new, simplified biomass torrefaction reactor concept that operates under oxygen-lean conditions is proposed as a potential way to downscale torrefaction reactors for small- and medium-scale applications. To verify the feasibility of the concept, a multi-scale analysis was conducted to understand the design requirements, underlying chemistry, intra-particle effects, and overall reactor-scale heat transfer. We demonstrate that the heat transfer within the reactor and the appropriate reactor height is largely determined by gas-phase advection. Finally, by implementing a laboratory-scale reactor and operating it under diverse conditions, we show that such a design can indeed satisfy the requirements for torrefaction. This lays the basis for the second part of this two-part paper, where we develop a detailed mathematical model for this concept. In future studies, we will also systematically define and map the performance metrics and reaction conditions in order to understand the scaling laws for potential commercialization of this concept.

Computer-aided working-fluid design, thermodynamic optimisation and thermoeconomic assessment of ORC systems for waste-heat recovery

The wider adoption of organic Rankine cycle (ORC) technology for power generation or cogeneration from renewable or recovered waste-heat in many applications can be facilitated by improved thermodynamic performance, but also reduced investment costs. In this context, it is suggested that the further development of ORC power systems should be guided by combined thermoeconomic assessments that can capture directly the trade-offs between performace and cost with the aim of proposing solutions with high resource-use efficiency and, importantly, improved economic viability. This paper couples, for the first time, the computer-aided molecular design (CAMD) of the ORC working-fluid based on the statistical associating fluid theory (SAFT)-γ Mie equation of state with thermodynamic modelling and optimisation, in addition to heat-exchanger sizing models, component cost correlations and thermoeconomic assessments. The resulting CAMD-ORC framework presents a novel and powerful approach with extended capabilities that allows the thermodynamic optimisation of the ORC system and working fluid to be performed in a single step, thus removing subjective and pre-emptive screening criteria that exist in conventional approaches, while also extending to include cost considerations relating to the resulting optimal systems. Following validation, the proposed framework is used to identify optimal cycles and working fluids over a wide range of conditions characterised by three different heat-source cases with temperatures of 150 °C, 250 °C and 350 °C, corresponding to small- to medium-scale applications. In each case, the optimal combination of ORC system design and working fluid is identified, and the corresponding capital costs are evaluated. It is found that fluids with low specific-investment costs (SIC) are different to those that maximise the power output. The fluids with the lowest SIC are isoheptane, 2-pentene and 2-heptene, with SICs of £5620, £2760 and £2070 per kW respectively, and corresponding power outputs of 32.9 kW, 136.6 kW and 213.9 kW.

Generation of feasible deployment configuration alternatives for Data Distribution Service based systems

Data distribution service (DDS) has been defined by the OMG to provide a standard data-centric publish-subscribe programming model and specification for distributed systems. DDS has been applied for the development of high performance distributed systems such as in the defense, finance, automotive, and simulation domains. To support the analysis and design of a DDS-based distributed system, the OMG has proposed the DDS UML Profile. A DDS-based system usually consists of multiple participant applications each of which has different responsibilities in the system. These participants can be allocated in different ways to the available resources, which leads to different configuration alternatives. Usually, each configuration alternative will perform differently with respect to the execution and communication cost of the overall system. In general, the deployment configuration is selected manually based on expert knowledge. This approach is suitable for small to medium scale applications but for larger applications this is not tractable. In this paper, we provide a systematic approach for deriving feasible deployment alternatives based on the application design and the available physical resources. The application design includes the design for DDS topics, publishers and subscribers. For supporting the application design, we propose a DDS UML profile. Based on the application design and the physical resources, the feasible deployment alternatives can be algorithmically derived and automatically generated using the developed tools. We illustrate the approach for deriving feasible deployment alternatives of smart city parking system.

Soft-sensing with qualitative trend analysis for wastewater treatment plant control

Ammonia control in municipal wastewater treatment plants typically requires maintenance-intensive instrumentation. A low maintenance alternative is sought for small- to medium-scale applications. To this end, a pH-based soft-sensor is proposed to detect ammonia peak load events. This soft-sensor is based on a newly developed technique for qualitative trend analysis and is combined with a rule-based controller. The use of qualitative trend analysis makes this soft-sensor tolerant towards sensor drifts and thereby reduces the maintenance effort. The method allows controlling any process in which relative changes in the measured output are informative about the system output.

Temperature influence on six layers samaria doped ceria matrix impregnated by lithium/potassium electrolyte for Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells

Fuel cells operating at elevated temperatures are suitable for medium and large scale applications, thus they have good prospects for commercialization. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs) appear among the most promising in this respect. MCFC has a number of advantages over other high temperature fuel cells: (i) high energy efficiency and high electromotive force, (ii) nickel instead of platinium as a catalyst, (iii) electrolyte thickness of about 1 mm is much more easier to manufacture, (iv) it can be used as a CO2 separator due to its ability to capture carbon dioxide from the cathode side.LiAlO2 is a very effective support for molten carbonates, but it is very expensive as there are few manufacturers. In a single conducting electrolyte, the cathode inlet needs to contain an adequate ratio of CO2 to O2, (2:1), this results in low oxygen partial pressure at the cathode inlet (taking into account that oxygen is being delivered in air at an initial molar fraction of 21%). The low pressure of oxygen results in a relatively low Nernst voltage and feeds through into lower MCFC performance. By using a dual conducting electrolyte, a more favorable ratio between carbon dioxide and oxygen (CO2:O2<2) can be obtained, achieving higher maximum voltages which in turn translate into higher efficiency.Excellent performance was obtained for the Sm0.2·Ce0.8·O1.9– carbonate composite and nanocomposite electrolytes prepared using eutectic carbonates with a mixture of Li2·CO3/Na2·CO3. High temperature membranes based on dual carbonate and oxide electrolytes have been shown to selectively separate CO2 above 600 °C.In this paper, the testing results of a composite electrolyte layer based on Samaria Doper Ceria and Lithium/Potassium carbonates for its electrochemical performance as a matrix for MCFC are presented. The voltage–current density curves were collected in a range of temperatures: 500–800 °C.The idea is to use a dual conductive composite electrolyte as a matrix for Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells. This results in an improvement in the performance of the MCFC, by, in particular, increasing ionic conductivity through additional O= conduction.

Constraints-free modeling and experimental validation of a transcritical CO2 system for medium and large scale applications

A constraints-free transcritical CO2 heat pump model for medium and large system applications is proposed and validated through experimental measurements. The model features five components, namely: compressor, chevron-type plate heat exchanger as gas cooler, expansion valve, fin-and-tube evaporator and chevron-type plate internal heat exchanger. Unlike existing models, the proposed model takes into account the detailed geometric characteristics of each component at a wide range of operating conditions without imposing any constraints, such as constant temperatures and pressures. Parametric studies regarding the influence of relevant operating and design parameters, such as ambient temperature, water inlet temperature and chevron inclination angle are conducted and a brief discussion on pressure optimization regarding the influence of compressor speed, expansion valve openness and number of plates at the internal heat exchanger is carried out. Comparison between the experiments and simulations showed that the model accurately reflects the actual system with a maximum error of 9.6% and 3.9% for the coefficient of performance and heating capacity, respectively. The parametric examinations are thoroughly compared to results published in literatures. In essence, the results showed that the COP and the heating capacity simultaneously increase with dry bulb temperature and chevron inclination angle, reaching a maximum at about 70°, while the effects of water inlet temperature are more significant and opposite to that of dry bulb temperature.

The last ten years of research at Tarquinia

The Centro di Ricerca Coordinata ‘ProgettoTarquinia’ of the Universita degli Studi di Milano is a LERU (League of European Research Universities) exemplary interdisciplinary research project that involves groups from the Universita Statale di Milano (Archaeology, Information and Communication Technologies, Geoarchaeology, Palaeoanthropology), the Politecnico di Milano (Architecture and Topography) and bridges the gap between soft and hard sciences. This project stems from the ‘Progetto Tarquinia’ conceived by Maria Bonghi Jovino in 1982. During the last ten years, our integrated system of tools and services, supported by ICTs (ArchMatrix), through which multidisciplinary domain experts can examine all the typologies of data of a given culture, has made it possible to concentrate on the links between data-sources focusing on the recurrence of association rates within different aspects of material evidence and phenomena. The fields of application of our methodology in the domain of archaeology and epigraphy are multifaceted as regards the inside and outside connections of the Tarquinian heritage, whose necropolis with the famous painted tombs is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Research includes areas of the Civita plateau: the ‘monumental complex’, the Ara della Regina sanctuary, fortifications, and archaeological sites previously explored. In the past ten years, research in the necropolis (roughly 6,000 tombs, of which 400 are painted) and in the surrounding territory has also been implemented and has produced the complete corpus of the painted tombs of Tarquinia. Our holistic approach encompasses archaeological analysis of small (mobile finds), medium (archaeological contexts) and large scale (territory and landscape) architectural analysis and applications for integrated solutions for the cultural heritage, including the first bilingual Virtual Museum dedicated to an Etruscan city.

Novel Approach for Whole Test Suite Generation using Metamorphic Relations

Background: The software or an individual program will not get crash by the minute bugs in the code and always manual method for testing the code was not feasible, most of the cases the tester will adds the test oracles to the test cases using the manual method but it is not optimal solution for the large programs and software's and this method can targets only covering the one goal at a time. There is a problem with this coverage goals due to these goals are not independent. Methodology: To get out from these problems we propose a unique approach, in this approach we are generating the test cases automatically and developed an integrated method for program correctness, testing and debugging. Findings: We developed an unique approach in order to solve the oracle problem by using the metamorphic testing this approach also address the automatic debugging this testing uses the synergy algorithm, it does not attempt to traverse the execution tree , instead it attempts to cover all abstract states. Applications/Improvement: With metamorphic relations the system is ideal for medium and large scale applications and this approach also uses the fuzzy logic to provide the result whether the test case pass or fail.

ChemInform Abstract: Materials for Suspension (Semi‐Solid) Electrodes for Energy and Water Technologies

AbstractReview: 156 refs.