Medium Density Housing Research Articles

Socio-Spatial Factors Affecting Household Recycling in Townhouses in Pretoria, South Africa

Although social factors affecting recycling have been widely researched, the effect of spatial and physical factors posed by medium-density housing, such as townhouses, is less understood. Using the Theory of Planned Behaviour, the relative effect of three sets of factors on household recycling in townhouses are examined, including ‘attitude’ (about recycling), ‘subjective norm’ (social pressure), and ‘perceived behaviour control’ (ability to recycle). A questionnaire survey of 300 households was conducted in Equestria, an enclosed middle-income residential estate consisting of several townhouse complexes. Confirmatory factor analysis verified the three factor measurement model for recycling participation. Both recyclers and non-recyclers showed positive attitudes toward recycling and felt social pressure to recycle. Non-recyclers, however, felt significantly less able to recycle. Most recyclers as well as non-recyclers indicated that certain proposals for increasing recycling may cause them to recycle more, in particular a system through which the management agency arranges access for a recycling company to collect recyclables from strategically located collection points inside the complex. Urban planning and design recommendations for facilitating recycling in townhouses are discussed.

Becoming Urban: Exploring the Transformative Capacity for a Suburban-to-Urban Transition in Australia’s Low-Density Cities

Metropolitan planning and development of Australia’s cities for much of the past 75 years has been strongly influenced by what could be termed the “North American model” of low-density, car-dependent suburban development on greenfield master-planned housing estates. The negative social, economic and environmental consequences associated with perpetuating this low-density greenfield model were becoming evident by the 1990s and “compact city” policies began to feature, albeit in piecemeal fashion, in the long-term metropolitan planning strategies of the major capital cities in Australia. This compact city transition, from “suburban” to “urban” (i.e., from a low-density urban form dominated by detached housing with its own surrounding private space to one where there is a significant presence of medium-density and apartment accommodation), remains a challenging work in progress, as reflected in a rapid succession of metropolitan planning strategies—and reviews—for cities such as Melbourne and Sydney since the beginning of this century. Urban infill targets of 70% for new housing construction in these cities now represents a major break with the past and a challenge to the major stakeholders involved in urban development in Australia: state and local government, the property development industry and residents of the established, ageing “greyfield” suburbs that are a focus for intensified redevelopment. This paper comprises four parts. The introduction identifies the multiple challenges confronting 21st-century urban development in Australia. The second part frames transitions required for a regenerative retrofitting of the established suburbs of its major cities, with particular focus on the greyfields. The third section extends transition management research into an examination of the transformative capacity of each of the four key stakeholder groups that are central to achieving such a regenerative transition. To date, the greatest resistance to more intensive redevelopment has come from urban residents. The final section of the paper focuses on this stakeholder group, and draws on data from a major household survey that examines the attitudes of resident property owners in the middle suburbs of Sydney and Melbourne to neighborhood change and medium-density housing development.

Planning and Governance for Decentralised Energy Assets in Medium-Density Housing: The WGV Gen Y Case Study

The energy needs of most urban populations are serviced with centralised, fossil fuel based generation and transmission infrastructure. However, with the advent of affordable solar and storage technology, this will likely move towards an increasingly hybridised and decentralised model. While many households presently benefit from stand-alone solar photovoltaic systems, in higher density areas this technology is difficult to provide due to the way multi-dwelling buildings are governed. This paper examines a case study for a multi-dwelling, residential building called Gen Y within a bigger innovative development called WGV, in which a planning and governance structure has been developed to provide both financial incentive for the installation of renewable energy in multi-dwelling buildings, as well as to demonstrate how planning can best optimise the behind-the-meter installation and management of solar and battery technology. It suggests the building management company can become a precinct-scale utility.

De-risking development of medium density housing to improve housing affordability and boost supply

Housing price inflation is a national concern given the serious decline in the number of low- and middle-income households able to purchase housing. In addition housing supply lags well behind demand. In Melbourne, urban consolidation policies explicitly seek intensification to promote housing supply but planning regulation is often criticised for being a significant cost driver for medium density housing. It is assumed that easing supply constraints will improve affordability. We suggest that laissez-faire planning exacerbates affordability issues because this approach fails to address the basic economic problem: the current inability of the market to efficiently match supply and demand in order to progress an orderly and de-risked development process. The role of ‘exchange’ one of the four housing market sub-systems identified by Burke has until recently generally been ignored but our examination reveals significant economic transaction costs that manifest as development risks that impact on affordability. Fortunately these can be mitigated, but only if there is a more consumer-driven supply response.

Understanding the Importance of Urban Amenities: A Case Study from Auckland

Along with many Pacific Rim cities in Australia and North America, Auckland, New Zealand has enacted an urban growth management strategy premised on two concepts: “liveability” and a “quality compact city”. The effective implementation of this strategy will, in part, require higher density housing typologies to be developed within the existing suburban fabric. The urban amenities in a neighbourhood play an important role in providing a sense of liveability for residents. This paper examines these issues by evaluating and reporting on key outcomes from 57 face-to-face qualitative interviews with residents who currently live in medium density housing in four Auckland suburbs; Takapuna, Kingsland, Botany Downs, and Te Atatu Peninsula. Findings consider the trade-offs residents make when choosing to live in medium density housing typologies, how they value the urban amenities in their neighbourhood and the role they think these amenities play in their location satisfaction. Conclusions are drawn around how the resident-derived information may inform the market on the supply side of housing, and comment is made about how these preferences may, or may not, respond to the objectives of the underlying urban management strategies involved.

Space use by resident and transient coyotes in an urban–rural landscape mosaic

Context Coyotes (Canis latrans) have adapted successfully to human landscape alteration in the past 150 years and in recent decades have successfully moved into urban areas. While this causes concern about human–wildlife conflicts, research also suggests that coyotes tend to avoid humans and human activity in urban areas. For improving management, a better understanding of space use by coyotes is needed. Aims To study how coyote social behaviour influences fine-scale space use in urban areas we present results from an extensive, multi-year GPS telemetry study (2005–13). The study area in coastal Rhode Island is a mosaic of rural, suburban and urban land use and coyotes have only recently arrived. Methods We differentiated between two social classes: residents (individuals that have established a territory; n = 24) and transients (individuals that have no territory; n = 7). Space use was analysed using mixed effect models and detailed land-cover data. Key results Coyotes tended to select for agricultural and densely vegetated land cover and against land used for housing and commerce. Pasture and cropland were preferred by residents and avoided by transients, especially at night, indicating the role of agricultural land as prime foraging habitat. Both groups selected densely vegetated land cover for daytime shelter sites. Transients selected for densely vegetated land cover both day and night, indicating use for both shelter and foraging. Resident coyotes avoided high- and medium-density housing more than transients. Conclusions We interpret land-cover selection by resident coyotes as indicative of coyote habitat preference, while transients more often occupied marginal habitats that probably do not reflect their preferences. Differences in land cover selection between residents and transients suggest that transients have a corollary strategy to avoid residents. Implications With cover and food appearing to be important drivers of space use, coexistence strategies can build on controlling food resources as well as on the tendency of coyotes to avoid humans. Nevertheless, transients, having the need to avoid territorial resident coyotes as well, show a reduced aversion to land cover with high human activity, creating a higher potential for human–wildlife conflicts.

Common Ground: Creating Sustainable Neighbourhoods by Making Communal Space Multivalent in Medium Density Housing

Common Ground: Creating Sustainable Neighbourhoods by Making Communal Space Multivalent in Medium Density Housing

A Multivariate Study of Medium Density Housing Development and Neighbourhood Change Within Australian Cities

The introduction of medium density housing development within suburban areas has been favoured by government as a means of improving the efficiency of land use, reducing the costs associated with the delivery of government infrastructure and services, increasing the opportunity for affordable housing and balancing social mix. However, it has been hypothesised that such development may be having a negative impact on local neighbourhoods in terms of social structure; for example, reducing diversity as measured by economic status and family makeup or in terms of local housing market performance as measured by price. This paper considers whether such outcomes are able to be measured in terms of social structure and housing market performance for three Australian cities: Adelaide, Sydney and Melbourne between 2001 and 2006. The analysis is conducted at a disaggregated level to more accurately measure impacts at the local level. The paper attempts to identify whether medium density housing development has any impact on housing market performance at a suburb level as measured by median price and if there are associated changes in neighbourhood structure as measured by social constructs developed using the technique of principal components analysis.

EVALUATING DESIGN CAPABILITIES IN MEDIUM DENSITY INFILL HOUSING IN NEW ZEALAND THROUGH ANALYSIS OF ENTRIES TO A RECENT COMPETITION

The profile of New Zealand housing has for some time been dominated by the standalone suburban house. However, this pattern absorbs considerable land resources and leads to socially stagnant environments that are heavily dependent on private motorcars. For these reasons the largest cities in New Zealand have declared limits to peripheral growth. Such limits, coupled with changes in lifestyle, lead naturally to intensification of existing residential areas. Urban planning and design objectives that underpin residential intensification are sound - greater densities can provide for improved social opportunities, bolster economic circumstances to enable a greater range of services to be offered, and make better use of existing physical infrastructure. However, experience shows that the built outcomes are patchy, and that many infill projects fall short of meeting expectations for on-site amenity, and/or appear to be at odds with the character of the surrounding area. In late 2005, Housing New Zealand Corporation organised an architectural design competition for comprehensive redevelopment of a large site in the Auckland region. Research was conducted on the basis of this representative cross section of designers, with the aim of evaluating achievement by New Zealand designers in terms of residential amenity and its suitability to the surrounding context. A review of literature, including the design brief and a number of design guides for infill housing, bring forth the criteria addressing key urban design and architectural amenity issues specific to medium density housing. The criteria were used to assess the entries using a five point scale. The methodology generates data that is used to compare entries, and analyses relative strengths and weaknesses seen across all schemes. The results provide a snapshot of contemporary practice in New Zealand, suggesting where strengths and weaknesses lie with respect to planning and design of medium density housing. Key words: Social housing, medium density housing, design competitions, New Zealand

Practising theory: When theory affects urban planning

This article starts from the premise that, for all its diverse ideals and technical bases, the core of planning is an ability to favourably influence collective spatial concerns. The location of practice within spatial governance means that the ‘worth’ of planning theories often depends upon the nature of governance itself in given places and times. In this article, three layered vignettes of practice in Victoria, Australia are presented to demonstrate the importance of governance settings to the value and success of selected planning theories at different geographical and temporal scales. The vignettes examine: the introduction of new planning legislation in Victoria, Australia; the take-up of medium density housing; and the influence of communicative planning on participation. The article concludes that the effects of theory upon practice depend upon institutional circumstances, and that theory, and its users, must address this to be effective and to prevent unintended outcomes.

Towards Creating Inclusive Cities: Experiences and Challenges in Contemporary African Cities

Housing provision in South Africa has focussed on the delivery of ownership houses at the expense of other forms of tenure and types of housing. This strategy presumes that people live close to where they work. However, ‘migrant’ workers who do not want to own but need affordable accommodation in the city are still prevalent in urban areas. The focus in this paper is on access to affordable rental housing as a mechanism for inclusion in the city with a particular emphasis on ‘rooms’ as this appears to be a neglected type of provision on the formal housing agenda. The paper explores the socio-economic circumstances of the persons occupying these rooms, their strategies for seeking accommodation in the city in the face of a shortage of appropriate and affordable housing, and under conditions of extreme poverty. The paper looks at the different ways in which rooms are accessed and provided in the city of Johannesburg with an emphasis on the physical aspects of this form of housing. The paper is based on the author's previous research and policy work on homelessness, transitional and communal housing, backyard rooms, RDP housing evaluation and design strategies for medium density housing.

The impact of transient populations on recycling behaviour in a densely populated urban environment

This research paper explores the role of transience in kerbside recycling performance in Portsmouth, a Southern English city and one of the most densely populated in Europe. Recycling in an urban environment is difficult; UK authorities failing to meet their recycling targets are predominantly cities where medium and high density housing causes problems for collections that rely on householder segregation of waste. Since urban areas are likely to become more densely populated, the waste management issues arising in Portsmouth may be illustrative of those likely to be faced by authorities with high rates of population flux and high population densities in future, especially university towns and cities. A recycling participation survey of 62,299 households was carried out in June–July 2005 and repeated in June–July 2007. Householder participation in the kerbside scheme was recorded over three consecutive collections (6 weeks). There was very little change in overall participation between the two surveys, with 78.4% of households participating in recycling in 2005 and 78.2% in 2007. Although this shows recycling to be the “normal” activity, conducted by most households in both surveys, 10% of households were found to be “new recyclers” and 10% seemed to stop recycling (i.e. they were found to be recycling in 2005 but not in 2007), with the more densely populated areas being “hot spots” of change. As a consequence, 3 months after the 2007 participation survey, approximately 1300 “stopped recycling” households were surveyed by a team of doorsteppers to discuss why they apparently stopped recycling during the survey period. A key issue was population transience, which was found to be greater in urban areas. It seems that once the recycling habit is established it is very difficult to break. Changes in “physical” circumstances were the drivers behind those properties that stopped recycling: a change of address, a change in occupants, a bin going missing. A four-group recycling behaviour typology (sustained recycler, non-recycler, stopped recycler, and new recycler) emerges, which will be useful for many urban waste authorities in monitoring and analysing their own recycling performance. It is clear from this study that policies to concentrate population and to increase recycling rates in urban areas could potentially conflict. Actions for increasing recycling rates appropriate for authorities with high rates of population flux and high population densities are suggested, including targeted and carefully timed communications campaigns, especially for university students, and guidelines for new build properties.

The Social Sustainability of Medium Density Housing: A Conceptual Model and Christchurch Case Study

Although there is no broad consensus on the meaning of the term, this paper uses the notions of social equity and social justice as a starting point for analyzing ‘social sustainability’. Planning strategies such as compact city design and urban intensification are claimed to positively affect levels of social sustainability within the city, but is this actually the case? Medium density housing is one component of an urban compaction approach that is becoming more prevalent in the New Zealand context. This paper develops a model of the social sustainability of housing derived from key themes in the literature. The model is then used to ascertain the extent to which medium density housing in the central area of Christchurch is meeting residents' social needs. Information from in-depth interviews is used as a basis for examining the way such housing may be contributing to the overall ‘social sustainability’ of this city.

Endozoochory by white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus) across a suburban/woodland interface

We examined the role of white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus) in the dispersal of viable seeds in an intact forest bordered by medium-density housing in southern Connecticut. Estimated deer density on site was 23 deer/km 2 with higher local densities along the suburban/woodland interface. A total of 566 pellet groups were gathered in summers through early winters of 2002–2005. After vernalization at 5 °C for 60 days, pellet groups were placed in a growing medium in a temperature controlled greenhouse for 6 months. A total of 11,512 seedlings germinated from 61% of pellet groups, which included 86 taxa. Seeds of 40 species confirmed not native to the United States germinated from pellet groups. Given mean germination data of more than 20 germinants/pellet group and deer population estimate, each deer on site during the sampling interval had the potential to disperse over 500 viable seeds/day, which included approximately 350 seeds of exotic species. Median maximum travel distance of does for a 24-h period was 568 m with a maximum distance of 5932 m. Deer were likely consuming seeds in disturbed and/or edge habitats, which are often adjacent to residential housing, and transporting them into forested areas where exotic plants are not as prevalent. Birds, small mammals, and abiotic factors are known dispersal agents for plants. These results indicate that white-tailed deer are another important dispersal agent of seeds, particularly exotics. Thus, white-tailed deer may not only alter vegetation structure through direct browse damage of established plants, but also indirectly by lowering reproductive output of native plants and simultaneously distributing seeds of exotic species.

A Change of Focus from Low to Medium Density Housing for Chennai

A Change of Focus from Low to Medium Density Housing for Chennai

Exotic Seed Dispersal by White-tailed Deer in Southern Connecticut

We examined the role of suburban white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus Zimmerman) in dispersal of exotic plants in forests bordered by medium-density housing in southern Connecticut. Estimated deer density on the research site was 23 deer/km2 with higher local densities along the suburban/woodland interface. In 2002, 90 pellet groups were gathered periodically from September through December. In 2003, eight pellet groups were collected weekly from early June through late December for a total of 236. All pellet groups were vernalized at 5°C for 60 days. Pellet groups were placed in a growing medium in trays in a temperature controlled greenhouse for six months. Seeds germinated from 47% of pellet groups, which included 656 seedlings of 57 species. Seeds (n = 326) of 32 species not native to Connecticut germinated in 23% of pellet groups. We estimated that the deer herd on site had the potential to disperse 586-1046 viable exotic seeds/day/km2 during the 2002 sampling period and 390-696 viable exotic seeds/day/km2 during the 2003 sampling period. Birds, small mammals, and abiotic factors are known dispersal agents for exotic plants, some of which are invasive. Our results indicate that white-tailed deer are another important dispersal agent of exotic species. Thus, white-tailed deer may not only alter vegetation structure through direct browse damage of established plants, but also indirectly by lowering reproductive output of native plants and simultaneously distributing seeds of exotic species.

Patterns of Urban Consolidation in Melbourne: Planning Policy and the Growth of Medium Density Housing

This article describes the changing nature and extent of urban consolidation in Melbourne in the context of government policy. It also compares, for two periods, 1997–98 and 2002–2003, the amount of medium density development categorised by development size, approved in four municipalities (Boroondara, Stonnington, Port Phillip and Yarra) and its location particularly in relation to public transport. The article draws conclusions from these trends for the operation of medium density codes in Melbourne, and for the new metropolitan strategy.

Energy-efficiency in housing for the aged

This paper reports on a case study that showed that when medium density housing for the aged in a temperate climate was designed to be energy efficient, indoor temperatures in summer and winter were outside an acceptable temperature range. The findings indicate that the current benchmarks for energy efficient design do not account for the relatively small floor area of aged persons’ housing and the concerns of the elderly in relation to large areas of glazing.

Urban Intensification in Auckland, New Zealand: A Challenge for New Urbanism

Medium Density Housing (MDH) is a relatively new form of housing in New Zealand where the standalone house on a separate lot has traditionally been revered. This paper reports on the findings of a research project on Ambrico Place, a major MDH initiative in Waitakere City, one of four cities in the Auckland metropolitan area. This case study explores the development of a site that has been significantly influenced by new urbanist principles. The paper provides an overview of the historical and political context influencing the take up of MDH in Auckland. It briefly reviews theory and principles arising from new urbanist movements then describes the Ambrico Place Research Project. Next, it explores three interrelated issues, relevant to new urbanism, that arose from the research; the quality of the built environment, community and social interaction, and transport patterns of MDH residents. Implications for planning are identified. Finally, three problems are noted: the uncritical and incoherent implementation of new urbanist principles; the contradiction between the drives for both diversity and homogeneity in the built environment; and the tensions arising from the application of an environmental effects-based approach to planning in an urban setting.

Intensification in Auckland: Issues and Policy Implications

This article identifies issues around the Auckland Region's strategy for urban intensification and discusses the ensuing policy implications. Medium density housing forms an important element of the strategy for growth management. Implications for its success are primarily drawn from research into a major housing development in Waitakere City. It is argued that for ideological, political and technical reasons the strategy could be easily undermined. The article also suggests that something of a paradigm shift is underway in urban planning.