Mediterranean Spain Research Articles

Prey preferences of the polyclad flatworm Prostheceraeus roseus among Mediterranean species of the ascidian genus Pycnoclavella

In the present study we analyzed prey preferences of the polyclad flatworm Prostheceraeus roseus among three different species of colonial ascidians of the genus Pycnoclavella occurring sympatrically in the Northwestern Mediterranean (Spain). Palatability assays were conducted in laboratory conditions in order to test predator preferences in pairwise tests, and cycles of abundance of the predator and prey were monitored in the field. The results showed a clear preference of the predator for Pycnoclavella communis over Pycnoclavella nana and Pycnoclavella aurilucens. We suggest that chemical variation in defense compounds among species of this secondary metabolite-rich genus can drive the flatworm preferences. The ascidian had seasonal cycles in the area studied, with resting (aestivation) states in the summer months. The flatworm abundance showed no clear seasonal cycle, but it was less abundant in winter. The predator has been seen in the field feeding either on active zooids or on the reserve-laden basal mass of tunic during the aestivation phase of P. communis.

Non-point pollution of groundwater from agricultural activities in Mediterranean Spain: the Balearic Islands case study

Mediterranean Spain is a region with intensive agricultural production combined with an important seasonal water demand for water supply. High application rates of inorganic nitrogen fertiliser, input of plant protection products and intensive irrigation, sometimes with treated wastewater, is a common practice. As a result, most aquifers show nitrate contamination problems of agricultural origin. Data on pesticide residues is scarce, as systematic monitoring is not currently done. In Majorca Island, values up to 700 mg/l of nitrate in groundwater have been observed. To analyse the current situation derived from non-point pollution, several actions have been taken at different scales: declaration of a nitrate vulnerable zone, field experiments to evaluate nitrogen transport to the aquifer and the development of a GIS-simulation model to generate nitrate risk maps.

A Hydrometeorological Modeling Study of a Flash-Flood Event over Catalonia, Spain

Abstract During the early morning of 10 June 2000, the Catalonia region was affected by a hazardous convective rainfall episode that produced a large increase on flow regimes in many internal catchments of the region. The present modeling study is focused upon the Llobregat basin, the biggest internal catchment with a drainage area of 5040 km2. The first objective of the study is the characterization of the watershed hydrological response to this flash-flood event based on rain gauge data and the Hydrologic Engineering Center’s Hydrological Modeling System (HEC-HMS) runoff model. The HEC-HMS model has been calibrated using five episodes of similar torrential characteristics, and the effects of the spatial segmentation of the basin and of the temporal scale of the input rainfall field have been examined. These kinds of episodes present short recurrence intervals in Mediterranean Spain, and the use of mesoscale forecast driven runoff simulation systems for increasing the lead times of the emergency management procedures is a valuable issue to explore. The second objective uses NCEP and ECMWF analyses to initialize the nonhydrostatic fifth-generation Pennsylvania State University–NCAR Mesoscale Model (MM5) in order to simulate the 10 June 2000 flash-flood episode with appropriate space and time scales to force the runoff model. The final objective analyzes the sensitivity of the catchment’s response to the spatial and temporal uncertainty of the rainfall pattern based on an ensemble of perturbed MM5 simulations. MM5 perturbations are introduced through small shifts and changes in intensity of the precursor upper-level synoptic-scale trough. Main results indicate that 1) an optimum configuration of the runoff model can be clearly defined that best adjusts the simulated basin’s hydrological response to observed peak discharges, their timing, and total volume; 2) the MM5-control driven runoff simulation shows a reasonable reproduction of the observed discharge at the basin’s outlet and appears to be a suitable tool for the hydrometeorological forecasting of flash floods in the Llobregat basin as a whole; and 3) the ensemble of perturbed runoff simulations does not exhibit any relevant degradation of the forecast skill, and some of the members even outperform the control experiment at different stream gauge locations. That is, the catchment is relatively insensitive to rainfall forecast errors of a few tenths of kilometers and no more than 1–2 h.

Epidemiological Study of Non‐systemic Parasitism in Dogs in Southeast Mediterranean Spain Assessed by Coprological and Post‐mortem Examination

The prevalence and risk factors of non-systemic canine ecto- and endoparasitism and anthelminthic use in Murcia located at the centre of the Spanish Mediterranean coastal arch, was investigated by coprology and necropsy in up to 275 pet, city shelter and stray dogs in 2001-2004. Faecal parasite stages were detected in 25% of dogs. Species frequency was 6-10% for Toxocara canis, Ancylostomatidae spp., Toxascaris leonina and Isospora canis, and 0.4-1% for Trichuris vulpis, Giardia lamblia, and Dipylidium caninum. Logistic regression indicated that the risk of intestinal parasitism was highest for dogs <or=1 year old, in the middle to low weight range and kept at the city shelter. Although risk factors varied according to the species, T. canis was most common in <1 year old and Ancylostomatidae spp. was more prevalent in older dogs. This suggests that the dominant species was Uncinaria spp. and not the more zoonotically important Ancylostoma spp. This was further supported by necropsy findings; however, the degree of agreement between post-mortem and coprological examination for intestinal parasites was generally poor. Necropsy revealed 10%G. lamblia, 12%Taenia spp. 38%D. caninum infections. Fleas, ticks and lice were also found in 38%, 6% and 2% of necropsied stray dogs. These results demonstrate the need for an urgent parasite control programme at the city dog shelter and the need to improve the owner's education on zoonotic risks, the proper use of anthelminthics, and other parasite control practices.

Land Use Change and Land Degradation in Southeastern Mediterranean Spain

The magnitude of the environmental and social consequences of soil erosion and land degradation in semiarid areas of the Mediterranean region has long been recognized and studied. This paper investigates the interrelationship between land use/cover (LULC) changes and land degradation using remotely sensed and ancillary data for southeastern Spain. The area of study, the Xaló River catchment situated in the north of the Alicante Province, has been subjected to a number of LULC changes during the second half of the 20th century such as agricultural abandonment, forest fires, and tourist development. Aerial photographs dating back to 1956 were used for the delineation of historic LULC types; Landsat ETM+ data were used for the analysis and mapping of current conditions. Two important indicators of land degradation, namely, susceptibility to surface runoff and soil erosion, were estimated for the two dates using easily parametrizable models. The comparison of 1956 to 2000 conditions shows an overall "recuperating" trend over the catchment and increased susceptibility to soil erosion only in 3% of the catchment area. The results also identify potential degradation hot-spots where mitigation measures should be taken to prevent further degradation. The readily implemented methodology, based on modest data requirements demonstrated by this study, is a useful tool for catchment to regional scale land use change and land degradation studies and strategic planning for environmental management.

Morphological adaptation of an invasive American mink population in Mediterranean areas of Spain

AbstractIn this work we studied the morphology of an invasive population of American mink Mustela vison in Catalonia, Mediterranean Spain. Body weight, body length, tail length, hindfoot length and ear length were measured for four age–sex classes: subadult male (n = 17), subadult female (n = 16), adult male (n = 36) and adult female (n = 10). A General Linear Mixed Model was used to test the effect of year, sex, age and age–sex interaction, on each parameter. The morphological results differed from those of other introduced populations because of their different origin and their adaptation to different environments. Differences in sex and age were found, pointing to sexual dimorphism both in adults and subadults. The degree of dimorphism was lower than that of other populations, probably because of a lack of trophic niche separation between male and female mink because in the study area only small prey animals were available.

Lesions associated with Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex infection in the European wild boar

Information on lesion distribution and characteristics is essential to determine the significance of a species as a reservoir host for tuberculosis (TB). Herein, we describe the extension and distribution of lesions in 127 Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex culture positive European wild boars (Sus scrofa), and use this information to discuss the role of this wildlife species in TB epidemiology in Mediterranean Spain. Macroscopic TB-compatible lesions were detected in 105 of 127 wild boars (82.68%). Only microscopic lesions were found in 11 wild boars (8.66%). Lesions were not evident in 11 wild boars (8.66%). A total of 49 wild boars had lesions confined to one anatomical region (42.2%, localized TB), while 67 animals had lesions in more than one anatomical region (57.8%, generalized TB). Head lymph nodes (LNs), particularly the mandibular LNs, were most frequently affected (107/116, 92.24%), and 43 wild boar had only mandibular LN lesions. Histopathology evidenced TB lesions in 38.1% of the lungs, 23% of the livers and 13% of the spleens examined. Mammary gland lesions were observed in three cases. When TB lesions were localized, granulomas characterized by a mixed inflammatory cell population were more predominant, whereas strongly necrotic-calcified granulomas were more prevalent in generalized cases of TB infection. Large lesions in more than one anatomical region were more frequent among juveniles. The histopathological characteristics of the tuberculous reaction and the associated tissue damage in various organs, together with the gross pathology, indicate that at least those wild boar with large lesions and generalized infections have the potential to excrete mycobacteria by several routes. This finding, in the context of unusually high densities of wild boar and fencing and feeding, reinforces the suggestion that wild boar can act as a true TB reservoir under the particular circumstances of Mediterranean Spain. Further studies on the routes of excretion as well as the effect of altering management methods would be of interest to confirm the role of wild boar in TB epidemiology in Spain.

Impact of the lateral boundary conditions resolution on dynamical downscaling of precipitation in mediterranean spain

Conclusions on the General Circulation Models (GCMs) horizontal and temporal optimum resolution for dynamical downscaling of rainfall in Mediterranean Spain are derived based on the statistical analysis of mesoscale simulations of past events. These events correspond to the 165 heavy rainfall days during 1984–1993, which are simulated with the HIRLAM mesoscale model. The model is nested within the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts atmospheric grid analyses. We represent the spectrum of GCMs resolutions currently applied in climate change research by using varying horizontal and temporal resolutions of these analyses. Three sets of simulations are designed using input data with 1°, 2° and 3° horizontal resolutions (available at 6 h intervals), and three additional sets are designed using 1° horizontal resolution with less frequent boundary conditions updated every 12, 24 and 48 h. The quality of the daily rainfall forecasts is verified against rain-gauge observations using correlation and root mean square error analysis as well as Relative Operating Characteristic curves. Spatial distribution of average precipitation fields are also computed and verified against observations. For the whole Mediterranean Spain, model skill is not appreciably improved when using enhanced spatial input data, suggesting that there is no clear benefit in using high resolution data from General Circulation Model for the regional downscaling of precipitation under the conditions tested. However, significant differences are found in verification scores when boundary conditions are interpolated less frequently than 12 h apart. The analysis is particularized for six major rain bearing flow regimes that affect the region, and differences in model performance are found among the flow types, with slightly better forecasts for Atlantic and cold front passage flows. A remarkable spatial variability in forecast quality is found in the domain, with an overall tendency for higher Relative Operating Characteristic scores in the west and north of the region and over highlands, where the two previous flow regimes are quite influential. The findings of this study could be of help for dynamical downscaling design applied to future precipitation scenarios in the region, as well as to better establish confidence intervals on its results.

Improving revegetation of gypsum slopes is not a simple matter of adding native species: Insights from a multispecies experiment

A common practice in the revegetation of motorway slopes is to hydroseed broad-purpose, fast-growing, usually exotic species, without particular attention to soil, climate and general features of each site. The importance of using native species is becoming widely acknowledged and restoration projects are gradually considering native species for the hydroseeding mixture, particularly under adverse climatic and soil conditions. However, the selection of species may not take into account the competitive interactions among commercial and native species, which can dramatically affect the outcome of the hydroseeding. We carried out a multispecies controlled experiment simulating eight different communities with species typically used in the revegetation of gypsum motorways slopes in Mediterranean Spain. The effect of the presence, relative density and emergence time of Lolium rigidum, a fast-growing and highly competitive introduced grass, on the growth and cover of each community and on the performance of six individual gypsum species was assessed. Survival and performance of the gypsum species was always hindered by L. rigidum. Mean height of the gypsum species was maximal at the combinations without L. rigidum and the same was true for aboveground biomass. Same kind of significant effect, although reduced in extent, was obtained when L. rigidum was sown 1 month after the emergence of the gypsum species. On the contrary, mean height, aboveground biomass, root biomass, and cover of the whole community (gypsum species + L. rigidum) was higher at the combinations with more individuals of L. rigidum, due to the fast growth of the latter. Our results showed that fast-growing commercial species outcompeted slow-growing gypsum species even on real gypsum soils and even if the community gets started with less individuals of commercial than of gypsum species, or if the former is sown 1 month after the germination of the latter. These results suggest that the inclusion of native species in the hydroseeding mixture may not improve the revegetation of gypsum slopes in Mediterranean conditions if used in combination with commercial, fast growing species, which can quickly cover the ground during the spring but are not likely to survive over the summer drought. Further studies should focus on the suitability of using herbaceous species tolerant of gypsum soils, as their growth rate is likely to be higher and could be used together or even instead commercial species.

Anomalous rainfall and associated atmospheric circulation in the northeast Spanish Mediterranean area and its relationship to sediment fluidization events in a lake

Changes in the dynamics of sediment transport in a Mediterranean lake (sediment fluidization events) are linked to atmospheric circulations patterns (trough monthly precipitation). In the basins of Lake Banyoles, located in the northeast of Spain, water enters mainly through subterranean springs, and associated fluctuations in the vertical migration of sediment distribution (fluidization events) present episodic behavior as a result of episodic rainfall in the area. The initiation of the fluidization events takes place when the monthly rainfall is ∼2.7 times greater than the mean monthly rainfall of the rainiest months in the area, especially in spring (April and May), October, and December. The duration of these events is found to be well correlated with the accumulated rainfall of the preceding 10 months before the process initiation. The rainfall, in turn, is mainly associated with six atmospheric circulation patterns among the 19 fundamental circulations that emerged in an earlier study focused on significant rainfall days in Mediterranean Spain. Among them, accentuated surface lows over the northeast of Spain, general northeasterly winds by low pressure centered to the east of Balearic Islands and short baroclinic waves over the Iberian Peninsula, with easterly flows over the northeastern coast of Spain, are found the most relevant atmospheric circulations that drive heavy rainfall events.

The Holocene and Upper Pleistocene pollen sequence of Carihuela Cave, southern Spain

A new pollen sequence (ca. 15,700–1250 yr BP) is presented for three stratigraphical sections of Carihuela Cave (Granada, southeastern Spain), thus completing a record that covers from the last Interglacial to late Holocene. The Late Glacial is characterized by open landscapes with junipers and early colonisation of Quercus, while the Holocene is depicted by mixed oak forests, with a diversity of broad-leaf trees and scrub, which decrease after ca. 5470 yr BP synchronously with the expansion of xerophytes and occurrence of indicators of anthropogenic disturbance. The whole pollen record of Carihuela fits into the general trends described for reference pollen sites of southern Europe, including Padul in the province of Granada, and other sequences from Mediterranean Spain, through which the heterogeneity of environmental change increases from mid to late Holocene. We conclude that, in contrast with other regions of Spain, deciduous Quercus-dominated forests are very old in eastern Andalusia, thus conflicting with floristic phytosociological models of vegetation change that imply that monospecific Q. ilex/rotundifolia woodlands are the potential mature forest in the region. Dating results suggest that the last Neanderthals of Carihuela lived between ca. 28,440 and 21,430 yr BP, which agrees with the postulation that southern Spain was the latest refugium for this human species in Europe.

Macroinvertebrate communities in sediment and plants in coastal Mediterranean water bodies (Central Iberian Peninsula).

Sediment and plant-associated macroinvertebrates were sampled in six shallow water bodies along the central part of the coast of Mediterranean Spain. The size of ponds, salinity and hydroperiod were highly variable. Seventy-one taxa were recorded, some of them were endemic or uncommon species, evidencing the important contribution of these ponds to biodiversity. Crustaceans and gastropods of biogeographical interest were found in the most primeval site. Correspondence analysis showed that macroinvertebrate assemblages responded to environmental variables such as salinity, temporality and eutrophication. The brackish water fauna was dominated by crustaceans, while oligochaeta and insect larvae were abundant in freshwater conditions. Oligochaetes were abundant at localities with high trophic level, whereas localities with semi-permanent waters were dominated by chironomids. The density of macroinvertebrates was clearly related with trophic state but we did not find significant relationships between density and salinity or water permanence. For plant associated samples our results showed negative relationships between species richness and temporality or salinity, contrary to sediment samples, where the Oligochaeta/Chironomidae ratio in sediments and the percentage of sensitive taxa (Ephemeroptera, Odonata, Trichoptera) were useful indices, and were dependent on pond typology. This study emphasizes the broad ecological variety of ponds found in these wetlands and their importance for biodiversity. Some ponds act as permanent biodiversity reservoirs in fluctuant marshes with seasonal dryness, calling for more attention on their ecological relevance for management strategies.

Macroinvertebrate communities in sediment and plants in coastal Mediterranean water bodies (Central Iberian Peninsula).

Sediment and plant-associated macroinvertebrates were sampled in six shallow water bodies along the central part of the coast of Mediterranean Spain. The size of ponds, salinity and hydroperiod were highly variable. Seventy-one taxa were recorded, some of them were endemic or uncommon species, evidencing the important contribution of these ponds to biodiversity. Crustaceans and gastropods of biogeographical interest were found in the most primeval site. Correspondence analysis showed that macroinvertebrate assemblages responded to environmental variables such as salinity, temporality and eutrophication. The brackish water fauna was dominated by crustaceans, while oligochaeta and insect larvae were abundant in freshwater conditions. Oligochaetes were abundant at localities with high trophic level, whereas localities with semi-permanent waters were dominated by chironomids. The density of macroinvertebrates was clearly related with trophic state but we did not find significant relationships between density and salinity or water permanence. For plant associated samples our results showed negative relationships between species richness and temporality or salinity, contrary to sediment samples, where the Oligochaeta/Chironomidae ratio in sediments and the percentage of sensitive taxa (Ephemeroptera, Odonata, Trichoptera) were useful indices, and were dependent on pond typology. This study emphasizes the broad ecological variety of ponds found in these wetlands and their importance for biodiversity. Some ponds act as permanent biodiversity reservoirs in fluctuant marshes with seasonal dryness, calling for more attention on their ecological relevance for management strategies.

Selección de especies y efecto del ciervo (Cervus elaphus L.) sobre arbustedos y matorrales de los Montes de Toledo, España central

Los sistemas agroforestales (mosaicos de bosques, arbustedos, matorrales, pastos herbáceos y cultivos) dedicados a la caza del ciervo constituyen una forma rentable y creciente de uso territorial en la España mediterránea desde la década de 1960. Como consecuencia, las cargas cinegéticas han aumentado mucho y sobrepasan con frecuencia los 50 individuos/km2. Ello origina un nuevo problema de sustentabilidad para esos nuevos sistemas agroforestales. Este trabajo analiza la selección de especies leñosas por el ciervo y el efecto de sus poblaciones sobre arbustedos y matorrales de los Montes de Toledo. Se obtuvieron índices de selección para 33 especies leñosas comparando sus porcentajes de utilización (ramoneo) con los de disponibilidad. Phillyrea angustifolia, Arbutus unedo y Quercus faginea presentaron los máximos índices mientras que Thymus mastichina, Daphne gnidium y Pinus pinea exhibieron los más bajos. Las preferencias alimenticias no varíaron significativamente al hacerlo las cargas cinegéticas. El efecto de una carga del orden de 35 ciervos/km2 parece superar el límite de sustentabilidad, incluso teniendo en cuenta que en el área de estudio existen pastos sembrados y cultivos disponibles para los ciervos.

Occurrence of Edwardsiella tarda in wild European eels Anguilla anguilla from Mediterranean Spain

Pure cultures of Edwarsiella tarda were isolated from body ulcers and internal organs of wild European eels caught in a Mediterranean freshwater coastal lagoon (Albufera Lake, Valencia, Spain) over a 1 yr period. Overall, the E. tarda isolation rate from wild eels was 9%, but this increased to 22.8% in diseased individuals. All 22 E. tarda isolates belonged to the 'wild-type' biogroup of the species and were virulent for eels (lethal dose that kills 50% of exposed individuals [LD50 dose]: 10(4.85) to 10(6.83) CFU ind.(-1)), and therefore represented the aetiological agent of the haemorrhagic disease observed in wild European eels. The E. tarda isolates and E. tarda CECT 894T type strain were biochemically and serologically related and resistant to macrolides, antifolates, and glycopeptides, but only the isolates from wild eels were resistant to clindamicyn. This study is the first description of edwardsiellosis in a wild European eel population, and alerts us to the presence of E. tarda in natural wetland environments in Mediterranean Europe.

La variabilité graphique du Molí del Salt (Vimbodí, Catalogne, Espagne) et l'art mobilier de la fin du Paléolithique supérieur à l'est de la Péninsule Ibérique

The Upper Paleolithic of Catalonia has been so far characterized by a very weak presence of artistic representations. This scarcity was especially surprising if we take into account the huge number of discoveries from other zones of the Iberian Peninsula (Valencia, the Cantabrian region). In this paper we present four objects of portable art found at the Molí del Salt site (Vimbodí, Conca de Barberà, Tarragona). Below a mesolithic layer, dated to 8 ka BP, there is an Upper Magdalenian sequence with several dates between 10.8 and 12.5 ka BP. These magdalenian levels have yielded four plaques of schist with engravings, including several animal figurines and one human representations. Once the objects are described, we will place them in the context of the portable art from the Late Upper Paleolithic of Mediterranean Spain. From these data, the chronocultural successions based on the Upper Magdalenian–Microlaminar Epipaleolithic distinction will be discussed.

Evaluating the benefits of CAP reforms: Can afforestations restore bird diversity in Mediterranean Spain?

Summary Current Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) subsidies in the Mediterranean region tend to prioritize afforestation on former arable land with oaks rather than pines because pine plantations would maintain lower biological diversities than native forests. Nevertheless, no thorough evaluations of the conservation values of pine plantations as compared to oak remnants have been carried out to date. We analyze the diversity and conservation value of bird assemblages breeding in 200 remnants of Holm oak Quercus ilex woodlands and 82 mature (>50-year-old) pine plantations in central Spain, a Mediterranean region mostly devoted to arable farming. Species–area relationships were compared between forest types. The conservation value of bird assemblages was assessed using the “Species of European Conservation Concern” (SPEC) classification of Burfield and van Bommel [(2004). Birds in Europe: Populations estimates, trends and conservation status. Cambridge: BirdLife International]. Overall numbers of bird species maintained by oak and pine archipelagoes were rather similar, but species–area relationships differed between forest types. Intercepts were higher in oak fragments, whereas slopes were steeper in pine plantations. Small oak fragments held more species (mainly Mediterranean Sylvia warblers) than plantations, whereas large plantations held more species than large oak remnants. Differences in species–area relationships seemed to be due to differences in vegetation structure, especially understorey shrub cover and tree height and cover. We recorded nine SPECs, all exclusive (6) or near-exclusive (3) to oak woodlands, although such woodlands do not appear to be critical for their conservation. Hence, we conclude that pine afforestations have played a role for maintaining and restoring forest bird communities in the farming landscapes of central Spain. Promoting large and shrubby plantations would enhance their conservation value for breeding birds, together with promoting growth, regeneration and expansion of Holm oak remnants by means of set-aside measures previous or alternative to oak reafforestation. The increasing importance of non-commercial as compared to commercial values of Mediterranean forests would justify subsidizing the proposed policy.

Variations in genes regulating neuronal migration predict reduced prefrontal cognition in schizophrenia and bipolar subjects from mediterranean Spain: A preliminary study

Both neural development and prefrontal cortex function are known to be abnormal in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. In order to test the hypothesis that these features may be related with genes that regulate neuronal migration, we analyzed two genomic regions: the lissencephaly critical region (chromosome 17p) encompassing the LIS1 gene and which is involved in human lissencephaly; and the genes related to the platelet-activating-factor, functionally related to LIS1, in 52 schizophrenic patients, 36 bipolar I patients and 65 normal control subjects. In addition, all patients and the 25 control subjects completed a neuropsychological battery. Thirteen (14.8%) patients showed genetic variations in either two markers related with lissencephaly or in the platelet-activating-factor receptor gene. These patients performed significantly worse in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test–Perseverative Errors in comparison with patients with no lissencephaly critical region/platelet-activating-factor receptor variations. The presence of lissencephaly critical region/platelet-activating-factor receptor variations was parametrically related to perseverative errors, and this accounted for 17% of the variance ( P=0.0001). Finally, logistic regression showed that poor Wisconsin Card Sorting Test–Perseverative Errors performance was the only predictor of belonging to the positive lissencephaly critical region/platelet-activating-factor receptor group. These preliminary findings suggest that the variations in genes involved in neuronal migration predict the severity of the prefrontal cognitive deficits in both disorders.

Monthly and daily precipitation trends in the Mediterranean (1950–2000)

The aim of the paper lies in the identification of possible significant linear trends at monthly, seasonal and annual timescales in the Mediterranean during the second half of the 20th century. Monthly and daily records of 63 stations have been used to elaborate several precipitation indices: sum of daily precipitation (SDP) for rainfall >0.1 mm, >10 mm and >95th percentile, of number of rainy days (RD) >0.1 mm and >10 mm and of mean daily precipitation (MDP) >0.1 mm and >10 mm. For each index the stations have been gathered together by Rotated Principal Component Analyses to determine 8 sub-areas which can be considered as identical for all the timescales at the spatial scale of the research. Trends have been estimated from the scores of each eigenvector retained in all RPCAs. They are mainly non existant or non significant decreasing, even if a few monthly trends appear to be significantly diminishing, primarily during winter months, March in the Atlantic region, October in the Mediterranean Spain, December in the Lions and Genoa Gulfs, January, winter and the year in Greece, winter and the year in Italy and winter in the Near East and increasing in April in the two gulfs. Correlation coefficients between SDP>0.1 mm and other indices have been computed: the significant trends seem mainly related to RD>10 mm, which represents a high percentage of the total rainfall amount. Greece is remarkable: SDP>0.1 mm and >10 mm decrease significantly during January, winter, the rainy season and the entire year whereas SDP>95th percentile increases significantly, in accordance with the climatic change scenarios for the end of this century as does the decreasing of the total monthly and seasonal rainfall.

Martín Almagro Basch, Fernando Gil Carles y el Corpus de Arte Rupestre Levantino

The Corpus of Levantine Rock Art [CARL] (1971-1976) is a compilation, as yet unmatched in quality, of color photographs and contextual information on three quarters of the paintings known in Mediterranean Spain. Our reconstruction of its genesis is based on published literature, archival records, and oral history (the last of these constituting a particularly important source for the history of science). Its formation by the prehistorian M. Almagro Basch and the photographer F. Gil Carles illustrates the institutional, personal, and economic context of research in the Franco era. We emphasize Almagro’s contributions in studying, documenting and protecting the art and in resorting to an external purveyor within a scientific project. Gil Carles’s training, his work and his innovative classification of the material (described here for the first time) made him Spain’s first heritage photographer. The article shows how the combined efforts of the two made the CARL the only systematic Spanish photographic archive built on an interregional scale and with explicit criteria.