Mediterranean Islands Research Articles

Human-Impact Gradients through Anthropogenic Pollen Indicators in a Mediterranean Mosaic Landscape (Balearic Islands)

This paper proposes new anthropogenic pollen indicators for the Balearic Islands and attempts to assess gradients of human impact on vegetation in Mediterranean islands. A combination of modern pollen analogue studies, complemented by phytosociological descriptions and ordination techniques using quantitative and presence/absence data was used. Redundancy analysis allowed us to evaluate the relationships between pollen types and significant environmental variables and propose regional (e.g., Centaurea, Rubus, Plantago lanceolata-t) and local/microregional anthropogenic pollen indicators (e.g., Cerealia, Poygonum aviculare, Matricaria-t). Additionally, an anthropogenic index score (AIS) for each sampled location was calculated to correlate each pollen type to a specific degree of human impact: (a) low (e.g., Cerastium-t, Erica arborea-t, Cistus albidus), (b) moderate (e.g, Sinapis-t, Sanguisorba minor-t, Plantago bellardii-t), (c) high (e.g., Papaveraceae undiff., Dipsacaceae, Secale-t). This paper contributes to a further understanding of land-use dynamics and to defining the degree of impact, which is especially necessary to assess colonization and anthropization rhythms in Mediterranean island environments.

Analysis of Road Accessibility by Residents and Tourists to Public Hospitals in Mallorca (Balearic Islands, Spain)

Accessibility to public hospital services is crucial for healthcare provision, particularly in regions characterized by high tourist presence, such as the Mediterranean islands. This study aims to assess the accessibility of public hospital services in Mallorca, considering access time, the geographic distribution of the resident population, and tourist accommodations. A GIS-based analysis using optimal routing algorithms and the Gini index was conducted to examine the equity in the distribution of regional and reference hospitals across four Health Sectors: Ponent, Migjorn, Tramuntana, and Llevant. The findings reveal that accessibility to regional hospitals is generally favorable, with average access times of 18, 16, 15, and 26 min, respectively, without surpassing 60 min. Accessibility to referral hospitals is comparatively lower, with 31,499 individuals located more than 1 h away. Moreover, 56% of the population is within 10 min from the referral hospital, and only 1.6% require more than 50 min to reach the hospital. Accessibility differs among Health Sectors, with Llevant experiencing the most significant impact. The hospital distribution in Mallorca is deemed to be adequate to serve residents, tourists, and the road network. Although limited in comparisons to other studies conducted in Spain, accessibility in Mallorca is fairly similar to Andalusia, Extremadura, and Catalonia. The study underscores the necessity for health infrastructure planning in order to account for the distribution of resident and tourist populations to ensure efficient and equitable services, particularly in Mediterranean island environments with a substantial tourist presence.

Analysis of Hydrometeorological Trends and Drought Severity in Water-Demanding Mediterranean Islands under Climate Change Conditions

Global climate change has emerged as a problem in recent years, and its effects will likely continue to increase in the future. Several scientific studies conducted in the Mediterranean region have demonstrated relatively stationary trends for annual precipitation and significant upward trends for mean annual temperature. These trends present several implications, especially in the Greek islands that serve as major summer tourist destinations where the population is already unable to meet their water demands. The aim of this study is to investigate both long- and short-term variations in temperature and precipitation on three Greek islands in the Mediterranean Sea (Mykonos, Naxos, and Kos). The temperature and rainfall trends, as well as their magnitudes at yearly, seasonal, and monthly time steps, were determined using the non-parametric Mann–Kendall trend test. The Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) was employed to identify the drought periods. According to the results, precipitation slightly increased (almost stationary) in the three islands, although this rise was not statistically significant. All three islands experienced a sharp and statistically significant increase in their mean annual air temperatures. The region may experience drought episodes as a result of the high temperature increase, which would drastically reduce the amount of water, available for use due to the increased evapotranspiration. For the Mediterranean region, the necessity for a drought management strategy to stop or diminish the severity of drought episodes and their effects has grown into a matter of great concern. It is crucial to take measures and conduct relevant research in order to create the conditions for adaptation and mitigation of climate change consequences and the increased appearance of drought phenomena.

The tourist experience at urban food markets: a qualitative study in Palermo (Sicily)

PurposeFood markets have gathered a growing attention by tourism researchers and practitioners in recent years. Many destinations have placed food markets as a tourism attraction which allows visitors to discover a territory through its food. Drawing on the understanding of markets as identity and tourism icons, this paper aims to analyze the role of urban food markets in the different stages of the tourist experience from a visitor perspective.Design/methodology/approachTo achieve this, a qualitative design was implemented to interview 18 tourists who visited for the first time the city of Palermo, the capital of the Mediterranean island of Sicily, Italy.FindingsThe results of this study show the factors that drive the motivations, the experiences and the satisfaction of visitors to food markets and provide relevant perspectives into the management and marketing of food tourism in urban environments.Originality/valueThe originality of this paper lies on the understanding of the relationships between visitor experiences and urban food markets.

The snakeflies of the Mediterranean islands: review and biogeographical analysis (Neuropterida, Raphidioptera)

The Mediterranean region representsone of the hotspots of biodiversity of many organisms and among these also of Raphidioptera. With about 250 known species world-wide Raphidioptera is the smallest order of extant holometabolous insects.The Mediterranean region harbors 113 species (= >45% of the world fauna), and of these 33 (= >13% of the world fauna) have been found on islands of the Mediterranean Sea. In the course of the past 50 years most of the larger islands have been intensively explored for Raphidioptera, particularly all islands (except the Baleares) which had no connection to the mainland throughout the whole Pleistocene. Altogether, 11 species of Raphidioptera (9 Raphidiidae, 2 Inocelliidae) are endemic to (usually)one, rarely to a few Mediterranean islands:Phaeostigma (Ph.) euboica (Euboea), Ph. (Aegeoraphidia) prophetica (Rhodes), Ph. (Ae.) karpathana (Karpathos), Ph. (Ae.) biroi (Crete), Ph. (Superboraphidia) minois (Crete),Subilla principiae(Sardinia),S. colossea(Rhodes), Raphidia (R.) peterressli (Chios), R. (R.) ariadne (Crete), Fibla (F.) maclachlani (Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily), F. (Reisserella) pasiphae (Crete).In the Aegean Sea there is a remarkable difference between the eastern and the western islands marked by the so-called Rechinger line based on results of the analysis of the flora. The Raphidioptera confirm this line impressively.It is rather unlikely that further Raphidioptera species endemic to Mediterranean islands are still to be detected – with one exception: the Baleares. A few additional species known from various parts of the continents surrounding the Mediterranean Sea will probably be found on islands so that a total number may be around 40, possibly around 45 species.The possible ways and times of colonization of the islands by Raphidioptera are discussed. The present paper may serve as a basis for studies on natural and particularly on anthropogenic dispersals of snakeflies from island to island, from mainland to islands, and from islands to the mainland in connection with phylogeographic investigations.

Morphology and taxonomic assessment of eight genetic clades of Mercuria Boeters, 1971 (Caenogastropoda, Hydrobiidae), with the description of five new species

The freshwater snail genus Mercuria is widely distributed in lowland waters across Western Europe, Northern Africa and the Mediterranean islands. Approximately two-thirds of the currently recognised species are described based on their shell morphology, which may vary within species due to biotic and abiotic factors. Recent molecular phylogenies that included numerous previously documented populations recovered 14 species clades, nine of which correspond to nominal species and five, to undescribed taxa. Here, we formally describe the five undescribed taxa as new species and provide morphological descriptions of the shell and other anatomical structures for three of the other inferred clades and for the species M. maceana to elucidate their taxonomic status and assess the utility of morphological characters for species delimitation in Mercuria. Taken together, the morphological and molecular evidence suggest new identifications and synonymies, having implications on the known geographic range of the studied species, including the type species M. similis. Anatomical measurements and geometric morphometric analysis of shell shape revealed no clear differentiation among the species analysed, predicting the importance of molecular data in elucidating the species diversity of the genus.

Questioning Sardità―Approaches to Island Identity Issues in the Mediterranean

ABSTRACT This article analyzes a bundle of tensions tied to the (self-)representations of the larger Mediterranean subnational islands: island-specific identities are often used in aspiring to political independence and in moving toward linguistic unification, even when they run counter to historically evolved complexity and contemporary cultural heterogeneity. Taking Sardinia as an example, this article questions the construction of sardità along two main axes: language policy and literary production. The authors begin by noting that Sardinian often serves as an umbrella term for several local linguistic varieties whose attribution to that language is in part contested. The authors next assert that the self-conception of the islanders, as reflected in Sardinian literature, is also partly stamped by outside perspectives. Focusing on the case of Sardinia, but with comparative outlooks on Corsica and Sicily, this article shows that the tensions between homogenization trends and cultural-linguistic complexity undermine and at the same time found claims of island exceptionalism.

(Not) sweeping invasive alien plants under the carpet: results from the use of mulching sheets for the control of invasive Carpobrotus spp.

Biological invasions represent a global threat to biodiversity. Particular attention should be made to the management of alien plants. The species from the Carpobrotus genus are well-known invasive plants native to South Africa, whose detrimental effects on native communities are widely documented. These impacts have become particularly important in terms of their invasive potential on small Mediterranean islands, where they often threaten particular ecosystems and endemic species. We report the experience from the efforts to eradicate this species from the island of Giannutri (Tuscan Archipelago, Italy)—an action included within the EU LIFE project “RESTO CON LIFE”—where the species occurred on about 14,000 m2 of coastal vegetation. The eradication employed an integrated approach with two control methods (manual removal and covering with mulching sheets) and involved mosaic rocky cliff coastal vegetation and disturbed areas with loose soil close to the cliffs. We present here the results obtained from five years of monitoring using permanent plots. Carpobrotus spp. exerted strong impacts on the invaded plant communities, with significant depletion and replacement of native species. Both of the control methods proved effective in the suppression of the mat formed by the invasive species and led to a positive response of native vegetation. Nevertheless, the recovery of native plant communities differed depending on the type of substratum, taking longer on rocky cliffs due to the harsher conditions. Improvements were driven by nitrophilous species in the plots treated with mulching sheets.

Demographic monitoring of the invasive ladder snake on Formentera (Balearic Islands, Spain)

AbstractThe ladder snake Zamenis scalaris was first reported in 2006 in Formentera (Balearic Islands, Spain), until then a snake‐free Mediterranean island. Since 2016, intense control campaigns have been carried out and, for the first time, snake captures over 2017–2020 have been used to analyze the sex ratio, age, fat percentage, population density, and seasonality of this invasive population. The male‐biased sex ratio found in the present work could be the result of capture biases caused by different detection probabilities between sexes. A reduction of snake body length over time was observed, which could indicate a depletion of the larger snakes due to intense snake capture. The highest capture frequencies of both sexes were reported in May and June, coinciding with the mate searching period in the species native range and indicating that snakes increase their movements during this period. Size‐specific survivorship curves indicated a drop in survivorship at medium sizes, which suggested a survival cost associated with reproduction, presumably due to increased mortality during the mating season. Population density decreased from 1.812 snakes/ha in 2017 to 0.669 snakes/ha in 2020. Evidence obtained in the present work has allowed to evaluate the main ecological aspects of Z. scalaris and the current state of the population of this invasive snake on the island of Formentera. Results showed that the population is well established in Formentera, but prolonged control campaigns have caused its decline. This study becomes a starting point to improve the management and control programs of invasive snake populations in the Balearic Islands. Long‐term control as well as the improvement of the detection and capture of adult females are strongly recommended to attempt the eradication of Z. scalaris in Formentera.

Direct evidence of the use of multiple drugs in Bronze Age Menorca (Western Mediterranean) from human hair analysis

Human hair dated to Late Prehistory is exceedingly rare in the Western Mediterranean. Archaeological excavations in the Bronze Age burial and cult cave of Es Càrritx, in Menorca (Balearic Islands) provided some human hair strands involved in a singular funerary rite. This finding offered the opportunity to explore the possible use of drug plants by Late Bronze Age people. Here we show the results of the chemical analyses of a sample of such hair using Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-High Resolution Mass Spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS). The alkaloids ephedrine, atropine and scopolamine were detected, and their concentrations estimated. These results confirm the use of different alkaloid-bearing plants by local communities of this Western Mediterranean island by the beginning of the first millennium cal BCE.

Thalassemia prevention: Religious and cultural barriers to premarital screening in Bangladesh.

Thalassemia prevention: Religious and cultural barriers to premarital screening in Bangladesh.

Detection of Pathogens and Ticks on Sedentary and Migratory Birds in Two Corsican Wetlands (France, Mediterranean Area).

Birds are one of the most species-diverse vertebrate groups and are susceptible to numerous hematophagous ectoparasites. Migratory birds likely contribute to the circulation of these ectoparasites and their associated pathogens. One of the many migration paths crosses the Mediterranean islands including Corsica and its wetlands, which are migration stopovers. In our study, we collected blood samples and hematophagous ectoparasites in migratory and sedentary bird populations in two coastal lagoons: Biguglia and Gradugine. A total of 1377 birds were captured from which 762 blood samples, 37 louse flies, and 44 ticks were collected. All the louse flies were identified as Ornithomya biloba and all the ticks were from the Ixodes genus: Ixodes sp. (8.5%), I. accuminatus/ventalloi (2.9%), I. arboricola/lividus (14.3%), I. frontalis (5.7%) and I. ricinus (68.6%). Five pathogens were detected: Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Erhlichia chaffeensis, and Rickettsia helvetica in ticks, and Trypanosoma sp. in louse flies. Ehrlichia chaffeensis and the West Nile virus were both detected in bird blood samples in Corsica. This is the first report of these tick, louse fly and pathogen species isolated on the bird population in Corsica. Our finding highlights the importance of bird populations in the presence of arthropod-borne pathogens in Corsican wetlands.

Spatiotemporal Patterns and Road Mortality Hotspots of Herpetofauna on a Mediterranean Island

Traffic intensification, often in conjunction with habitat fragmentation, has caused frequent roadkill incidents, particularly among reptiles, amphibians, and other taxa. Herpetofauna species, which are slow moving and habitat dependent, are particularly susceptible to these incidents because they often use roads during thermoregulation. Lesvos, the eighth-largest Mediterranean island, boasts a biodiversity that surpasses most other Mediterranean islands of similar or larger size, with a plethora of herpetofauna species inhabiting its terrain. In recent years, new roads were constructed on Lesvos, which are considered to be one of the most important factors that negatively affect the island’s wildlife as they increase the non-natural mortality of animals, are obstacles to their mobility, and reduce the connectivity of populations by limiting their dynamics. In the present study, we examined the road mortality of amphibians and reptiles by analyzing (a) the temporal and seasonal patterns of such incidents, (b) the relationship between roadside habitats and road network characteristics with the roadkilled herpetofauna species, and (c) their spatial distribution on Lesvos during the years 2009–2012 and 2016–2019. To identify significant clusters of reptile and amphibian roadkills, we performed hotspot analysis by utilizing kernel density estimation and Getis Ord Gi* statistics. We recorded a total of 330 roadkills among 20 species, with the highest rates emerging among the European green toad (Bufotes viridis), the European glass lizard (Pseudopus apodus), the Rhodos green lizard (Lacerta diplochondrodes), and the snake-eyed lizard (Ophisops elegans). Spatial statistical analysis revealed that roads close to herpetofauna habitats exhibit statistically significant clusters of roadkills that intensify during the spring season. Regular monitoring and mapping of herpetofauna road mortality will enable the implementation of management strategies to mitigate the negative impact of this phenomenon.

Yellow-legged gull populations (Larus michahellis) link the history of landfills to soil eutrophication and time-related vegetation changes on small Mediterranean islands

Seabird colonies have a strong influence on both the physical and chemical soil parameters and plant communities of the islands where they settle to nest. Scientists have studied the effects of the demographic explosion of seabird populations, but few have explored the long-term effects when the colonies were in decline. The aim of this study was to investigate diachronic changes over a 24 year period of soil parameters, floristic composition and plant functionnal types (Raunkiaer growth forms and Grime life strategies) up to the decrease of the number of nesting yellow-legged gulls (Larus michahellis Naumann, 1840) on Mediterranean islands. We used 78 permanent plots to survey the vegetation and the soil parameters on 9 islands and one mainland area within the Calanques National Park (south east of France), for three periods (i.e., 1997, 2008, 2021).Since 1997, the increase of nesting gulls has caused a nitrogen and pH increase and organic carbon and C/N ratio decrease, although the values were still higher than mainland plots without nesting gulls. This has led to changes in plant species composition e.g., higher values of N favouring the development of ruderal plant species, still present in high frequency in 2021. Furthermore, plant species highly tolerant to disturbances (i.e., R Grime strategy) in harsh environments were still favoured even after the decline of gull abundance. However, both the frequency of the chamaephytes and the vegetation cover has increased with the decline of gull colony. In 2021, measures of trace elements' concentrations and calculation of pollution load index (Cu, Pb and Zn) reveals relatively low multi-contamination levels on the mainland and the archipelagos.On naturally oligotrophic and semi-arid Mediterranean islands, gull colonies induce a persistent alteration in soil characteristics that still influences plant communities (composition and functional types), 11 years after the decline in bird abundance.

The Alien to Cyprus Entomofauna (ACE) database: a review of the current status of alien insects (Arthropoda, Insecta) including an updated species checklist, discussion on impacts and recommendations for informing management

Alien insects represent one of the most species rich groups of organisms introduced to Europe, with some responsible for adverse social-economic, human-health, biodiversity and ecosystem impacts. The impacts of invasive alien species, especially on island ecosystems, have been a hot topic of research worldwide. Cyprus is a Mediterranean island at the biogeographic crossroads of Asia, Africa and Europe. This study presents the database of the alien insects of the island of Cyprus as a whole, created through an extensive review including grey literature and online sources. The Alien to Cyprus Entomofauna (ACE) triples the known number of alien insects and adds supplemental information to existing species. Data concerning a total of 349 alien insects are presented alongside an updated checklist and recommendations for informing management. The status of alien insects on the island, their origin, trophic guilds, establishment, pathways of introduction and impacts are discussed. Developing an alien species inventory for the island is challenging due to its geographic position and the increasing movement of people and goods leading to new species introductions. This publication constitutes an important first step towards providing information for effective actions to tackle invasive alien insects on Cyprus. The checklist and accompanying information can underpin understanding of the status and trends of alien species including providing information for risk assessments. ACE will continue to be maintained and updated as new records for Cyprus are made.

From hippos to cattle: The fragile relationship of early cypriots with their animals

The relationship between humans and animals has always been complex. Two seminal topics researchers have examined in detail relate to human-induced extinctions and to the major change in human/animal interactions during the domestication of certain key species. This essay examines animals and the earliest humans on the Mediterranean island of Cyprus from two perspectives. The first relates to the late Epipaleolithic where humans likely were instrumental in the extinction of endemic species, primarily the pygmy hippopotamus. The second focuses on the early Neolithic, when animals were coming under domestication. During this time, people still relied heavily on wild species (deer) and may have used some domesticates in a feral sense. These complex relationships demonstrate that Cyprus, despite its relatively small land mass, was involved in the sophisticated utilization of animals since the first humans were on the island.

Xylem formation patterns from Mediterranean to subalpine climate conditions reveal high growth plasticity of pine species on Corsica

Key messageBlack pine and Maritime pine exhibit considerable differences in growth phenology across elevation belts with a 1-month delay for xylogenesis and increasing growth rates from low, mid to high elevations.Investigating seasonal wood formation is crucial to understand tree growth responses to climate impact. The present study quantifies the variability of xylogenesis along an elevation gradient on the Mediterranean island of Corsica, where two native pine species (Pinus nigra Arnold ssp. laricio Maire and Pinus pinaster Aiton) grow from the upper tree line to sea level, partly in sympatry. We extracted microcores from 35 trees at 5 sites along an East–West transect from the coasts (10 m asl) to the island's central mountain ridge (1600 m asl) during bi-weekly sampling campaigns between 2017 and 2019. We applied generalised additive models to detect radial growth differences in elevation and species along with minimum temperatures for growth initiation. We found that trees in low elevations experienced over 2 months longer growth periods with higher maximum growth rates than in high elevations. The results show a 1-month delay for the beginning of tracheid formation between the low, mid and high-elevation belts but comparable timing for its termination. At the sites where both species co-occur, P. nigra accumulates more radial cells in a shorter time than P. pinaster. Trees at the two contrasting coastal sites have similar growth period lengths, but exhibit a time shift of over a month. Minimum temperatures around growth initiation vary between 3.1 °C for P. nigra and 9.9 °C for P. pinaster. These findings emphasise the high plasticity in the growth behaviour of one of the most widespread tree genera in Mediterranean and temperate zones.

Unrecognized for centuries: distribution and sexual caste descriptions of the West European Aphaenogaster species of the subterranea group (Hymenoptera, Formicidae).

There are only two Aphaenogaster species from the subterranea group in the western Mediterranean: A.ichnusa Santschi, 1925, from south-western Europe, and A.subterranea (Latreille, 1798), also occurring in central and eastern Europe. Historically, the two species have been widely misunderstood: A.ichnusa was long considered a Sardinian endemic subspecies of A.subterranea, while its continental populations were misidentified as A.subterranea s. str. Recently, A.ichnusa was elevated to species rank and its worker caste was redescribed with that of A.subterranea, allowing for their correct identification. Yet their distribution was documented in detail only for France and Sardinia. Furthermore, no morphological characters were described to distinguish the males and queens of the two species. By investigating private and museum collections, 276 new records of A.ichnusa are provided here and 154 of A.subterranea from the western Mediterranean. Additionally, qualitative and quantitative morphological characters were combined to identify their males and queens. We present the new southernmost, easternmost, and westernmost distribution limits for A.ichnusa. Based on our results, this species is widely distributed in Italy and Catalonia (Spain), also occurring on several Mediterranean islands, avoiding areas with continental climate and high altitudes. Sicily is the only island to host the less thermophilous A.subterranea, which otherwise extends westward to Galicia (Spain). Sympatric occurrence is not rare along the contact zone. Additional natural history observations are reported regarding foraging habits, associated myrmecophiles, habitat preferences, and colony structure in the two species.

COI diversity supports subspecific division in Western European Lestes virens (Charpentier, 1825) (Zygoptera: Lestidae), but hints at further Mediterranean complexity

We analyse COI sequences of 48 specimens of European Lestes virens (Charpentier) to explore patterns in genetic diversity including subspecific boundaries and potential glacial refugia. Our haplotype network and phylogenetic analyses reveal three distinct groups in Western and Northern Europe. One group corresponding to the nominate subspecies L. virens virens is confined to the Iberian Peninsula and southwestern France, and one group corresponding to the subspecies L. virens vestalis is found in the rest of western Europe including southern Scandinavia, mainland Italy and the Mediterranean island Sardinia. Surprisingly three specimens from the Mediterranean island Sicily form a highly distinct group in all our analyses. An analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) confirms that almost all observed genetic variance is explained by variation between these three groups rather than by variation between sample areas or between individuals. We conclude that the subspecific division into L. virens virens and L. virens vestalis is justified, but further studies are needed to determine the status of the populations in Sicily, southeastern Europe, and North Africa. The genetic pattern we find may reflect different glacial refugia: an Iberian/North African refugium for L. virens virens; a potential Italian refugium for L. virens vestalis; and a Sicilian/North African refugium for the Sicilian populations.

Discarded bottles entrap endemic small mammals species in a large Mediterranean island.

We examined the entrapment effect of discarded bottles on small mammals, along a road network located in North-Western Sardinia (Italy). On 162 bottles, 49 (> 30%) contained at least one animal specimen (invertebrate or vertebrate) and 26 (16%) entrapped 151 small mammals: insectivorous shrews (Soricomorpha) were more frequently recorded. Larger bottles (66cl.) showed a higher number of entrapped mammals, but difference was not significant when compared to smaller bottles (33cl.). Our data highlighted as abandoned bottles represent a threatening factor for small mammals on a large Mediterranean island with over-represented endemic shrews (predators of high trophic level) attracted by insects entrapped in bottles. Correspondence analysis suggest a weak segregation between bottles of different size, related to the abundance of the most entrapped species, the Mediterranean shrew (Crocidura pachyura). This still neglected type of litter, reducing number and biomass of insectivorous mammals of high trophic level and high ecological value may affect the food web in terrestrial insular communities, yet impoverished for biogeographical reasons. However, discarded bottles may represent as low-cost surrogate pitfall traps useful to improve knowledge in poor studied areas. Following the DPSIR (Driving force, Pressure, State, Impact, Response) approach as a framework to select indicator, we suggest as the effectiveness of removal clean-ups could be monitored using both the density of discarded bottles (as indicator of threat pressure) and the abundance of entrapped animals (as indicator of impact on small mammals).