Continental Mediterranean Climate Research Articles

Retrospective Analysis of the Spread of SARS-CoV-2 in the Mediterranean Part of Bulgaria, During the First Wave of the Pandemic

The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic demonstrated the importance of proper understanding of the epidemiology of viral infections in the modern cosmopolitan world. In this retrospective study, we analyzed different factors associated with the spread of SARS-CoV-2 in the Sandanski municipality, a small and isolated region of Bulgaria, with a classical continental Mediterranean climate. We collected 418 serum samples from people without symptoms of SARS-CoV-2 infection or other respiratory diseases. The samples were tested for COVID-19 markers with qualitative and quantitative ELISA for anti-N and anti-S antibodies, and a rapid test for (IgM/G) antibodies. The methods were applied to complement each other with the different characteristics each of them has, thus allowing us to perform more accurate and more comprehensive detection of serum antibodies and to analyze the virus spread. We compared the results with the official government data for the SARS-CoV-2 distribution in Bulgaria. Based on the obtained results and available literature data, we discuss the importance of popular diagnostic methods, the role of the climate, the travel of people and pets, psychological stress and the individual reaction of subjects related to the spread of the virus.

Evolution of microbiome composition, antibiotic resistance gene loads, and nitrification during the on-farm composting of the solid fraction of pig slurry using two bulking agents

Composting is a nature-based method used to stabilize organic matter and to transform nitrogen from animal farm manure or solid fraction of slurry (SFS). The use of composted material as source of nutrients for agriculture is limited by its potential to facilitate the propagation of biological hazards like pathogens and antibiotic-resistant bacteria and their associated antibiotic-resistance genes (ARG). We show here an experimental on-farm composting (one single batch) of pig SFS, performed under realistic conditions (under dry continental Mediterranean climate) for 280 days, and using two different bulking agents (maize straw and tree pruning residues) for the initial mixtures. The observed reduction in potentially pathogenic bacteria (80–90%) and of ARG loads (60–100%) appeared to be linked to variations in the microbiome composition occurring during the first 4 months of composting, and concurrent with the reduction of water-soluble ammonium and organic matter loads. Nitrification during the composting has also been observed for both composting piles. Similar patterns have been demonstrated at small scale and the present study stresses the fact that the removal can also occur at full scale. The results suggest that adequate composition of the starting material may accelerate the composting process and improve its global performance. While the results confirm the sanitization potential of composting, they also issue a warning to limit ARG loads in soils and in animal and human gut microbiomes, as the only way to limit their presence in foodstuffs and, therefore, to reduce consumers' exposure.

A Field Investigation of the Thermal Comfort of Older Adults in Cold Winter Climates

Population ageing, extreme weather, and high energy costs are the current and future global scenarios. The present study analyses the factors affecting the thermal comfort of older adults and evaluates their thermal perceptions and preferences in nursing homes in a Continental Mediterranean climate during winter, through environmental measurements and surveys on site. The sample consists of 1065 occupants. Results of this study revealed that the neutral temperature of older adults in nursing homes in cold winter climates is 24.9°C, 2.3°C higher than what PMV predicts. Results also highlight that older adults feel more comfortable in those spaces with higher CO2 concentrations than recommended by regulation. The analysis of factors affecting thermal comfort revealed that the most relevant factors affecting the thermal comfort of older adults in cold winter climates are (i) the type of room, which indirectly implies the metabolic rate of the occupants, the type of ventilation, and the CO2 level; (ii) the occupancy density; and (iii) the relative humidity of the room. These results will help to develop more accurate thermal comfort and indoor environmental quality regulations for older people that improve their health and quality of life. The modification of temperature setpoints in nursing homes based on the results of this study could influence energy use and should be carefully considered by policy makers and facility managers.

Forgotten giants: Robust climate signal in pollarded trees

Tree ring records are among the most valuable resources to create high-resolution climate reconstructions. Most climate reconstructions are based on old trees growing in inaccessible mountainous areas with low human activity. Therefore, reconstruction of climate conditions in lowlands is usually based on data from distant mountains. Albeit old trees can be common in humanized areas, they are not used for climate reconstructions. Pollarding was a common traditional management in Europe that enabled trees to maintain great vitality for periods exceeding the longevity of unmanaged trees. We evaluate the potential of pollarded deciduous oaks to record past climate signal. We sampled four pollarded woodlands in Central Spain under continental Mediterranean climate. We hypothesized that pollarded trees have a strong response to water availability during current period without pollarding management, but also in the period under traditional management if pruning was asynchronous among trees. Moreover, we hypothesized that if climate is a regional driver of oak secondary growth, chronologies from different woodlands will be correlated. Pollard oaks age exceeded 500 years with a strong response to Standardized Precipitation-Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) from 9 to 11 months. Climate signal was exceptionally high in three of the sites (r2 = 0.443–0.655) during low management period (1962–2022). The largest fraction of this climate signal (≈70 %) could be retrieved during the traditional management period (1902–1961) in the three sites where pollarding was asynchronous. Chronologies were significantly correlated since the 19th century for all the studied period, highlighting a shared climate forcing. We identified critical points to optimize pollard tree sampling schema. Our results show the enormous potential of pollarded woodlands to reconstruct hydroclimate conditions in the Mediterranean with a fine spatial grain. Studying pollarded trees is an urgent task, since the temporal window to retrieve the valuable information in pollarded trees is closing as these giants collapse and their wood rots.

SNP Diversity and Genetic Structure of "Rogosija", an Old Western Balkan Durum Wheat Collection.

Durum wheat landraces represent a genetic resource for the identification and isolation of new valuable genes and alleles, useful to increase the crop adaptability to climate change. Several durum wheat landraces, all denominated "Rogosija", were extensively cultivated in the Western Balkan Peninsula until the first half of the 20th century. Within the conservation program of the Montenegro Plant Gene Bank, these landraces were collected, but without being characterized. The main goal of this study was to estimate the genetic diversity of the "Rogosija collection" consisting of 89 durum accessions, using 17 morphological descriptors and the 25K Illumina single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) array. The genetic structure analysis of the Rogosija collection showed two distinguished clusters localized in two different Montenegro eco-geographic micro-areas, characterized by continental Mediterranean climate and maritime Mediterranean climate. Data suggest that these clusters could be composed of two different Balkan durum landrace collections evolved in two different eco-geographic micro-areas. Moreover, the origin of Balkan durum landraces is discussed.

Energy assessment, economic analysis, and environmental study of an Iranian building: The effect of wall materials and climatic conditions

The selection of external wall materials based on climatic conditions is an effective way to improve building energy performance. Because of the wide variety of commercial materials available for exterior walls, engineers and building designers rarely select these materials based on climatic conditions. In this study, the thermal performance of a building was investigated using Design-Builder software (V4.2.0.054) in three different Iranian climatic zones (hot desert, cold semi-arid, and continental Mediterranean climates) and six common wall materials (AAC block, LECA block, extruded polystyrene). A novel thermoelectric device was used to measure the thermal conductivity of these materials. According to the findings, choosing the right wall materials based on climate conditions can reduce annual heating and cooling loads as well as carbon dioxide emissions by up to 23.2 %, 26.4 %, and 18.5 %, respectively. According to the economic analysis, the payback period time ranges between 1.7 and 17 years, depending on the climatic conditions and the type of exterior walls.

Effect of two water deficit regimes on phenolic composition of 15 recovered grapevine varieties in Castilla-La Mancha region (Spain): A comparison with national and international varieties

As a consequence of the climate change effects, the chemical composition of wine grapes is being altered, particularly the phenolic components. For this reason, the drought effect on the phenolic composition of an extensive group of white and red varieties grown under a semi-arid continental Mediterranean climate (La Mancha, Spain) was studied in the 2021 vintage. The study was based on the comparison of the phenolic compounds of minority varieties, using other widely cultivated varieties as a reference. The results obtained indicated that there are currently little-known varieties that can equal or even improve to other reference varieties in terms of phenolic composition. Such varieties may be a good alternative for maintaining wine quality in present and future climate change scenarios.

Yield, quality, and nutrient uptake of stevia under continental Mediterranean climate

Stevia (Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni) is gaining attention due to its sweetening power. The stevia crop is still relatively unknown in Europe, and very little is known about its nutrient requirements. Therefore, agronomic studies are needed. Field trials were carried out in inland Spain in 2014 and 2015, in order to evaluate the yield, quality, and nutrient requirements of stevia according to planting density and harvest regime, under a continental Mediterranean climate. In 2014, the dynamics of growth, quality and accumulation of nutrients were studied during the vegetative period according to three planting densities (5.0, 7.5, and 10.0 plants m-2). No significant influence was found. The steviol glycosides concentration decreased sharply at flowering, while the leaf and steviol glycosides yields continued to increase for another 30 days or more. Yield, quality and nutrient uptake were studied during 2015 according to the three same planting densities, and three harvest regimes (one, two, and three cuts per year; all before flowering). Both factors had significant influence on most of the studied parameters. The best quality and the highest yield were not obtained under the same crop management. The highest yield was achieved with 10 plants m-2 and with 2 cuts per year, achieving around 6000 kg ha-1 of dry leaf and 650 kg ha-1 of steviol glycosides. The best quality was achieved with one cut just before flowering (12.2 % of steviol glycosides, 0.35 of Reb A to Stev ratio). The average uptakes of N, P, K, Ca, Mg and S were 35.6, 4.8, 59.9, 14.2, 5.2, and 1.6 kg t-1 of leaf.

Comparative Efficiency of Two Different Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment of Small Populations in Mediterranean Continental Climate

The treatment of wastewater from small towns supposes problems of economic efficiency, leading to very high environmental costs in areas with low population density. Constructed wetlands (CW) seems to be the more suitable solution for this kind of situation, but further investigations are needed regarding their efficiency under different climatic conditions. This work presents the results concerning urban wastewater treatment by means of two different constructed wetlands using macrophytes: horizontal subsurface flow (HSSF) and free water surface (FWS). The systems are located in a Mediterranean continental climate area and are fed by a by-pass at the entrance of a wastewater treatment plant. A four-year sampling campaign at the outlet of the CW allowed verifying their relative effectiveness in removing pollutants in the different seasons of the year. BOD5, COD, and TSS were significantly removed (with average reductions of 55%, 60%, and 57%, respectively) by these natural phytodepuration systems, with HSSF being more efficient during plants’ dormancy than FWS, but the concentrations of nutrients indicated that cumulative effects occur in CW with the need of adequate annual maintenance. It was found that the main factors controlling the efficiency of such systems throughout the year are the period of vegetative development, the presence/absence of a solid substrate, and the pollutant load of the wastewater inlet.

Thermal comfort of older people during summer in the continental Mediterranean climate

Globally, the population is ageing and extreme weather scenarios are expected, especially in southern European countries. In this context, the study assessed the thermal comfort of older people in five nursing homes in a continental Mediterranean climate in Spain during summer, through environmental measurements and surveys on site. A total of 1412 people were interviewed, including residents (older people) and non-residents (adults). The results showed that under the same environmental conditions, adults felt that the environment was warmer and they were less tolerant than older people. There was a 2.4 °C difference between the neutral temperature of older people (25.6 °C) and adults (23.2 °C). Older people were less sensitive to thermal changes and their comfort zone was wider than that of adults. The comparison with similar studies from other climatic zones concluded that the neutral temperature for elderly in different climatic zones is similar but the thermal comfort zones are different. Older people were less sensitive to temperature changes than the predicted mean vote (PMV) model predicted. Therefore, this model would not be suitable for older people in cooling conditions in the Mediterranean continental climate. These results could be a starting point for the development of more accurate, healthy indoor spaces that meet the needs of older people as a vulnerable group, while improving energy efficiency and reducing emissions.

The effect of climatic conditions on occupants’ thermal comfort in naturally ventilated nursing homes

Climatic conditions influence thermal comfort. However, the effect of climatic conditions on occupants’ thermal comfort in naturally ventilated nursing homes has not been analysed. This paper reports on a study to analyse the climate influence on the thermal perceptions of residents (elderly people) and non-residents (caregivers and therapists) from 18 nursing homes in three climatic zones: Csa-m (Mediterranean climate); Csa-c (continental Mediterranean climate) and Csb (oceanic Mediterranean climate). A mixed methodology was used including environmental measurements and on-site surveys during naturally ventilated seasons. A total of 2690 surveys were collected: 550 in Csb climate nursing homes, 1252 in Csa-m and 888 in Csa-c.The results highlighted that nursing homes’ occupants (elderly people and other adults) from the different climates perceived thermal comfort differently within naturally ventilated conditions. Outdoor temperature and outdoor humidity were found to influence indoor thermal sensation in the climates. Therefore, outdoor relative humidity should be considered when thermal comfort standards are developed, or thermal comfort is analysed. Neutral temperature for elderly people was found to be dependent on climate. These findings carry significant implications for regulatory bodies to develop guidelines for the design and operation of nursing homes in different climates.

First detection of Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Babesia divergens and high infection rates of Anaplasma marginale and Babesia bigemina in cattle in extensive grazing systems of Central Spain.

Bovine vector-borne diseases have a considerable economic impact worldwide and affect health of humans and animals. However, different aspects of their epidemiology and their pathogenesis remain unclear. Despite the frequent description of clinical cases reported by practitioners attending cattle from Madrid, Central Spain, molecular prevalence of Anaplasma spp. and Babesia spp. has not been described. The aim of this study was to assess the positivity rate of A. phagocytophilum, A. marginale, A. centrale, B. bigemina and B. divergens in livestock of this area and to evaluate the existence of associations between these pathogens and haematological, biochemical and epidemiological data. Babesia divergens and A. phagocytophilum were detected for the first time in cattle from Madrid. Their positivity percentages were low (2.2%±1.4% and 1.8%±1.2%, respectively), but this description is of special interest, as these agents are potentially zoonotic. Both agents were found in areas of higher altitude and relative humidity and lower temperature. The detection of ticks in livestock during the moment of sampling was confirmed as a risk factor for these infections. Anaplasma marginale showed the highest molecular infection rate (30%±4.1%) in this study, followed by B. bigemina (21.9%±3.7%). Higher positivity rates of A. marginale and B. bigemina were found in the areas of mountain climate and warm-summer continental Mediterranean climate. The use of ectoparasiticide treatment was found as a risk factor for infection by A. marginale and B. bigemina. This finding could lead to reconsider the ectoparasiticide protocols that are used nowadays. Grazing on pastures with domestic or wild ruminants and the presence of wild carnivores were associated with higher rates of infection by these four agents and coinfections were frequently found.

A pressure indicator for the impact of Iberian wild goat on moss and soils in a Mediterranean climate

In the Sierra de Guadarrama National Park (central Spain), the population of Iberian wild goat, also known as Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica) has grown strongly since its reintroduction three decades ago. The plant community is now under heavy browsing pressure due to this high population. A study of the presence of moss on rocks was used herein as the basis for the design of an indicator, named impact on mosses (im), to describe the environmental pressure exerted by the Iberian wild goat in terms of moss removal. Granite and gneiss zones at medium altitudes with continental Mediterranean climate are the most suitable areas for successful application of the indicator. The hypotheses to test are: (1) the indicator will discriminate between areas with different wild goat pressure levels, (2) wild goat pressure will explain a high proportion of moss loss variance, and (3) the im indicator will be useful to establish a mathematical model between wild goat pressure and moss loss. The proposed indicator was analyzed using both statistical and data science techniques. The results support the mentioned hypotheses. Specifically, statistically significant differences were found regarding the impact on mosses between areas with different levels of Iberian wild goat pressure. Thus, a high proportion of the variance was associated with wild goat pressure (80% for high-pressure areas, 56% for low-pressure areas). A modified parabolic function was fit to express the relationship between Iberian wild goat pressure and impact on mosses. In conclusion, the im indicator was shown to be a useful tool to assess pressure due to Iberian wild goat. Therefore, im can help assess and manage Iberian wild goat populations and determine their sustainable levels.

Systematical Evaluation of Three Gridded Daily Precipitation Products Against Rain Gauge Observations Over Central Asia

Understanding the precipitation variability and extreme precipitation over arid Central Asia (CA) has largely been hampered by the lack of daily precipitation observations. The gridded precipitation datasets over CA are large discrepancies. Here, three gauge-based gridded daily precipitation products from Asian Precipitation Highly-Resolved Observational Data Integration Towards Evaluation (APHRODITE), Global Precipitation Climatology Center (GPCC), and Climate Prediction Center Based Analysis of Global Daily Precipitation (CPC_global) were assessed and compared with 49 rain gauge daily observations precipitation (OBS) from January 1985 to December 2015 using different time-scales over CA and different climate regimes, specifically Northern CA with temperate continental climate (NCA), Southwestern CA with dry arid desert climate (SWCA), and Southeastern CA with Mediterranean continental climate (SECA). Four accuracy indices [correlation coefficient (R), Bias, root mean square error (RMSE), and relative bias (RBias)] were employed to evaluate the performance of the three products in depicting the spatiotemporal features of precipitation variation over CA at multiple time scales (including daily, monthly, seasonal, and yearly). The mean annual and daily precipitation of OBS and three gridded products exhibit the trend of a gradual precipitation decreased from SECA to NCA and SWCA. The best overall performance was obtained for APHRODITE and GPCC for daily and annual time-scale, whereas CPC shows noticeable underestimation precipitation in SECA. The monthly precipitation depicted distinct features with a bimodal pattern with a peak in March and another in December, include the SECA and SWCA regions. In contrast, precipitation was concentrated in summer with the peak in July over the NCA region. At monthly scale terms, APHRODITE was more accurate in the wet seasons (winter and spring months) in SWCA and SECA. Additionally, GPCC has fairly better capability in summer months in NCA. Considering the spatial distribution, the bias variability was largerly in mountainous areas than in the plains. Temporally, the bias largerly in the dry seasons than in the wet seasons. At the interannual variability scale, GPCC was capable of qualitatively increasing the CA (NCA and SECA) precipitation during the last 21 years, while APHRODITE underestimated the trends. The CPC overestimated the precipitation trends over all regions. This study can serve as a reference for selecting daily precipitation products with low densities of stations, complex topographies, and similar climatic regions.

Seasonal influence of leaf area index (LAI) on the energy performance of a green facade

Double-skin green facades using deciduous climbing plants are easy-to-implement construction systems stated to be effective energy-saving tools for buildings during cooling periods. Although the leaf area index (LAI) has been identified as a key parameter for characterizing foliar density and, consequently, the green facade's potential as a passive tool for energy savings, a lack of knowledge still remains on this index's values and measurement methods. The present paper aims to characterize the annual LAI evolution of a Boston ivy double-screen green facade under Mediterranean continental climate (Csa), by using an original non-destructive methodology during two consecutive years. Moreover, the influence of the green facade's foliage density, characterized by LAI, on the external building wall temperatures and the energy consumption by season and orientation was addressed. From the results it can be noticed that LAI changed seasonally over the course of five periods with a related differentiated energy performance: early summer (LAI of 4.8; 54% savings for cooling), late summer (LAI of 4.4; 30% savings for cooling), autumn (LAI of 1.7; 5.4% increase for heating), winter (LAI of 0.9; 5.4% increase for heating), and spring (LAI of 3.6; 11.9% increase for heating). The increase of energy consumption during leaf-off stage was directly linked to woody material and remaining leaves. Two crucial effects were identified and characterized: firstly, the influence of facade orientation and, secondly, a slight “insulation effect” at night, with the green screen acting as a thermal barrier.

A comparative life cycle assessment between green walls and green facades in the Mediterranean continental climate

The building and construction sector is a large contributor to anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and consumes vast natural resources. Improvements in this sector are of fundamental importance for national and global targets to combat climate change. In this context, vertical greenery systems (VGS) in buildings have become popular in urban areas to restore green space in cities and be an adaptation strategy for challenges such as climate change. However, only a small amount of knowledge is available on the different VGS environmental impacts. This paper discusses a comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) between a building with green walls, a building with green facades and a reference building without any greenery system in the continental Mediterranean climate. This life cycle assessment is carried according to ISO 14040/44 using ReCiPe and GWP indicators.Moreover, this study fills this gap by thoroughly tracking and quantifying all impacts in all phases of the building life cycle related to the manufacturing and construction stage, maintenance, use stage (operational energy use experimentally tested), and final disposal. The adopted functional unit is the square meter of the facade. Results showed that the operational stage had the highest impact contributing by up to 90% of the total environmental impacts during its 50 years life cycle. Moreover, when considering VGS, there is an annual reduction of about 1% in the environmental burdens. However, in summer, the reduction is almost 50%. Finally, if the use stage is excluded, the manufacturing and the maintenance stage are the most significant contributors, especially in the green wall system.

Life Cycle Assessment and Soil Nitrogen Balance of Different N Fertilizers for Top Dressing Rye as Energy Crop for Electricity Generation

Nitrogen fertilizers have been identified in energy crops LCAs as the main contributors to global warming, as well as to many other environmental impacts. The distinct production process and application emissions of nitrogen fertilizer types for top dressing produce different GHG savings when energy crops value chains are compared to fossil energy alternatives. In this study, three types of fertilizers (calcium ammonium nitrate, urea and ammonium sulphate) at N top dressing rates of 80 kg N/ha are used to grow rye for electricity generation under the conditions of the Continental Mediterranean climate of central-northern Spain. Complete LCAs for the whole value chain based on real data were performed in conjunction with soil nitrogen balances (SNBs) to assess the accomplishment of European Union (EU) GHG savings sustainability criteria, as well as the sustainability of fertilization practices for soil nitrogen stocks. The results obtained can provide interesting insights for policy making, since calcium ammonium nitrate, the most common fertilizer for rye crops, led to 66% GHG savings, as opposed to the 69% achieved when applying urea and 77% when ammonium sulphate was used. Nevertheless, the three fertilizers produced annual soil deficits greater than 50 kg N/ha. In order to ensure savings above 80%, as required by the EU sustainability criteria, and sustainable SNBs, additional optimization measures should be taken at key points of the value chain.

A phytosociological research on the surroundings of Sürgü Dam (Sürgü/Doğanşehir/Malatya), Eastern Anatolia, Turkey

The study area is located within the boundaries of Sürgü town and belongs to Doğanşehir district of Malatya province in Eastern Anatolia Region. The study area in the Iran-Turan phytogeographic region is under the influence of a continental Mediterranean climate, which is dry in summer and very cold in winter. In the vegetation study carried out according to the Braun-Blanquet method (1932), seven syntaxa (associations) were identified, of which two belong to degraded forest vegetation, three belong to steppe vegetation and two belong to riparian vegetation. All of the syntaxa are new for the scientific world. The degraded forest associations are Thymo kotschyani– Juniperetum oxycedri ass. nova and Securigero variae– Quercetum cerridis ass. nova. The steppe associations are Gundelio armatae– Fumanetum aciphyllae ass. nova, Phlomido kurdicae– Astragaletum gummiferi ass. nova and Helichryso plicati– Polygonetum setosi ass. nova. The riparian associations are Rubo sancti– Salicetum cinereae ass. nova and Salici cinereae– Elaeagnetum angustifoliae ass. nova.

Greenery System for Cooling Down Outdoor Spaces: Results of an Experimental Study

Urban green infrastructure (UGI) and nature-based solutions (NBS) are increasingly recognized as strategies to address urban sustainability challenges. These solutions are attracting key scientific and marketing attention thanks to their capability to improve indoor and outdoor thermal comfort and environmental quality of spaces. In urban areas, where most of the population worldwide lives, indoor-outdoor environmental quality is compromised by local and temporary overheating phenomena, air pollution concentration, and impervious surfaces minimizing urban space resilience to climate change related hazards. In this view, the proposed study concerns the analysis of a greenery system for enhancing outdoor thermal conditions and local warming mitigation for pedestrians for the continental Mediterranean climate. The system has the purpose of designing an outdoor “alive” shading system to be applied in open public spaces, with producing physical and societal benefits. The experimental results showed that the implementation of the greenery, characterized by lower surface temperatures and evapotranspiration compared to a simple pergola system, allows the reduction of outdoor air temperature under the shading system and, thus, higher relative humidity in summer. Specifically, the hygrothermal cooling and the additional shading thanks to the presence of greenery provide local air temperature reduction up to 5 °C at pedestrian level.

Environmental and economic assessment of rainwater harvesting systems under five climatic conditions of Pakistan

Rainwater harvesting is broadly considered as a promising alternative water resource. In Pakistan, the availability of potable water is a significant issue due to the fast-growing population and urbanization. In this study, a hydro-economic model was developed and applied to investigate water saving and stormwater capture efficiency and financial feasibility of rainwater harvesting systems (RHS) under five climatic regions of Pakistan. Three non-potable water requirements (toilet flushing, garden irrigation, and mixture water requirements) are assessed. According to the results, stormwater capture efficiency is higher for RHS with larger tank size, supplying water for higher water requirement, and located in cities with less rainfall, whereas higher water saving efficiency and reliability are related to larger tank sizes, lower water requirement and situated in humid areas. For example, in Islamabad (humid subtropical climate), a 20 m3 RHS can capture 33% of the stormwater for garden irrigation and achieve 84% and 88% of water saving efficiency and time reliability, respectively. In Larkana (warm desert climate) a 20 m3 RHS achieves 33% and 32% of water saving efficiency and time reliability for toilet flushing, respectively, but it captures 61% of the stormwater. In humid subtropical, warm semi-arid and Mediterranean continental climate, the economic feasibility of RHS can be attained for appropriately designed RHS; whereas, in cold semi-arid and warm desert areas, the benefit-cost ratio is less than 1.0.