Mediterranean Research Articles

Time Series Clustering of Sea Surface Temperature in the Mediterranean and Black Sea Marine System

ABSTRACTSea surface temperature (SST) is a significant climatic variable that affects the climate of the Earth. Monitoring a location's SST pattern is useful for several research areas, including weather forecasting and climate change. In this study, the emerging hot spot and cold spot patterns of SST in the Mediterranean and Black Sea Marine System (MBMS) were examined, the spatial distribution characteristics and temporal changes of SST in the sub‐basins were analysed, and future predictions were made. A distinctive aspect of the research lies in the introduction of novel techniques, specifically the application of space time cube and evolving hot spot analysis, for visualising and evaluating SST in the MBMS. This approach sets the study apart by pioneering the utilisation of these methods in this particular context. In the examined region, SST demonstrates a decreasing trend from east to west and from south to north. The forecast suggests that this spatial distribution pattern will persist in 2033, further accentuated by the intensification of the warming effect. Nine different time series clusters are defined within this distribution pattern. Although it changes seasonally, the prevailing statistically significant hot spots in the study area are primarily characterised by new hot spots, intensifying hot spots, sporadic hot spots and oscillating hot spots. The trends of hot and cold spot clusters, along with SST values, were assessed for all sub‐basins in the MBMS. Conversely, the observed clustering category among statistically significant cold spots is identified as persistent cold spots, diminishing cold spots, sporadic cold spots, oscillating cold spots and historical cold spots. The spatiotemporal analysis in this research has provided notable insights, offering a spatial context to the previously explored temporal trends of SST in the MBMS.

Refraction-Aware Structure from Motion for Airborne Bathymetry

In this work, we introduce the first pipeline that combines a refraction-aware structure from motion (SfM) method with a deep learning model specifically designed for airborne bathymetry. We accurately estimate the 3D positions of the submerged points by integrating refraction geometry within the SfM optimization problem. This way, no refraction correction as post-processing is required. Experiments with simulated data that approach real-world capturing conditions demonstrate that SfM with refraction correction is extremely accurate, with submillimeter errors. We integrate our refraction-aware SfM within a deep learning framework that also takes into account radiometrical information, developing a combined spectral and geometry-based approach, with further improvements in accuracy and robustness to different seafloor types, both textured and textureless. We conducted experiments with real-world data at two locations in the southern Mediterranean Sea, with varying seafloor types, which demonstrate the benefits of refraction correction for the deep learning framework. We made our refraction-aware SfM open source, providing researchers in airborne bathymetry with a practical tool to apply SfM in shallow water areas.

The Legal Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage A Perspective from the Republic of Cyprus

Cyprus, an island nation situated in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, counts among the states that elected not to adopt the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (henceforth: the 2001 UNESCO Convention), although recognizing its merits. With a coastline of 648 km, Cyprus’ seafloor holds an abundance of underwater cultural heritage. Despite that wealth, one searches in vain for a comprehensive study on the legal protection of its underwater cultural heritage. Instead, sporadic references to some of its provisions can be traced throughout the scholarly research surrounding the legal protection of underwater cultural heritage1 and maritime archaeology.2 Against this background, this article stands as the first thorough effort to reflect on Cyprus’ legal protection of its underwater cultural heritage.

Fan Mussel (Pinna nobilis L.) Spat Collection, Monitoring of Early Growth and Conservation Implications by Deploying Conventional Aquaculture Methodology

Pinna nobilis, endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, has been experiencing a gradual population decline over recent decades due to anthropogenic pressures on its ecosystems. However, since 2016, its populations have suffered significant reductions because of pathological issues affecting the species across all its habitats. Aquaculture techniquesto support the limited natural recruitment P. nobilis efforts is examined. Artificial substrates for larval attachments in aquaculture infrastructures promote the survival of the juveniles that is further enhanced through protected pre-growing “nursery” farming conditions. Specific spat collectors were placed in 2 cage-fish farms in SW Amvrakikos Gulf. The harvested spats from were transferred to pre-grow in trays hanged on a long line farm mussel that is acting as a protected “nursery”, avoiding predation and any human accidentally disturbance. The survival and growth of 12 juveniles P. nobilis spat (shell length 38.1 ± 9.2 mm) in captivity (31 October 2023–15 March2023) was investigated. Out of the 12 individuals collected, 3 were examined for the presence of pathogens; only 7 survived, exhibiting enhanced growth (shell length 54.3 ± 11.6 mm) after 134 days in the nursery. The results highlight the significant role of aquaculture techniques in efforts to conserve a threatened species as well as the need for the creation of a protocol to ensure the conservation of P. nobilis.

Diachronic and historical evolution of the Al-Hoceima Bay coastline, Moroccan Mediterranean Sea

Al-Hoceima Bay, located on the northern coast of Morocco, holds significant environmental importance. It also faces environmental challenges, including the pressures resulting from urban sprawl and growing number of tourists, as well as the impacts of climate change. The objective of this study is to assess the coastal changes in Al- Hoceima Bay since 1964, considering both natural and human factors. This study is based on the diachronic analysis of aerial photographs taken over a period of 56 years, utilising the digital shoreline analysis system statistical technique to calculate the shoreline’s mobility index for each period. The results demonstrate significant erosion at the Tayth beach (−1.50 m∙y−1) and Souani beach (approximately −1.90 m∙y−1), whereas accretion was experienced at the Sfiha beach at a rate of about +1.11 m∙y−1 and at the Lharch beach at a rate of +0.92 m∙y−1. The mouth of the Nekôr River experienced the highest retreat at −3.15 m∙y−1, followed by Ghiss at −2.00 m∙y−1. These findings indicate the impact of human interventions, such as the construction of the Mohamed Ben Abdelkarim El Khattabi dam on Oued Nekôr since 1981, as well as climate changes that have led to decreased flow, particularly at Oued Ghiss. These combined climatic and anthropogenic impacts have exacerbated erosion and disrupted the sediment balance along the shoreline of Al-Hoceima Bay.

Population genetic structure of the bottlenose dolphin in the Turkish waters based on mtDNA sequences with implications for the Black Sea subspecies Tursiops truncatus ponticus

The bottlenose dolphin is a widely distributed species found in temperate waters, including the Mediterranean and Black Seas. The Black Sea population is recognized as a distinct subspecies, Tursiops truncatus ponticus, due to genetic and morphological differences. This study analyzed mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences of 73 bottlenose dolphin samples collected between 1999 and 2016 along the Turkish Black Sea coast, Turkish Straits System (TSS), Aegean, and Mediterranean Seas revealing 14 haplotypes, eight of which are reported here for the first time. The haplotype network shows two main nodes with star-like sub-networks, but no apparent geographic pattern. The lack of geographical groupings of haplotypes indicates the high mobility of the species within the sampled area. The northern Black Sea bottlenose dolphins (NBS) appear to be genetically differentiated from those in the southwestern Black Sea (SBS), Mediterranean, and Atlantic Ocean, but not from the TSS and Aegean Sea populations. Besides, SBS bottlenose dolphins were differentiated only from those in the western Mediterranean (WM) and the Atlantic. Therefore, NBS and SBS bottlenose dolphins should at least be categorized as different populations. However, contrary to some previous studies there was no evidence supporting the classification of Black Sea bottlenose dolphins as a separate subspecies. The TSS differs only from the Atlantic and the Aegean, and functions like a migratory ‘melting pot’ for surrounding populations. Despite the largest sample size, NBS bottlenose dolphins exhibited the lowest haplotype and nucleotide diversity. This low genetic diversity and potential isolation from adjacent populations highlight the need for prioritizing the conservation of NBS bottlenose dolphins.

Shedding light on trawl fishing activity in the Mediterranean Sea with remote sensing data

Abstract This study uses Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) vessel detections and Automatic Identification System (AIS) to predict trawl fishing intensity and distribution of fishing activity in areas where public AIS data are not available. By processing SAR data, considering spatial and temporal autocorrelation, and building a General Additive Model, a statistical relationship between SAR vessel detections and AIS fishing activity was established. The study provides spatially explicit estimates of trawler fishing activity, compared with official fleet records published by the General Fisheries Commission of the Mediterranean, revealing the distribution and intensity of trawl fishing activity not previously publicly tracked. Fishing grounds in the Strait of Sicily along the coast of Tunisia and North of Egypt showed an intensity of trawl fishing activity similar to the Adriatic Sea. This area is historically known to be subject to the highest trawling pressure in the Mediterranean, and also as one of the most heavily trawled regions in the world. The study shows that the integration of remote sensing data, such as SAR, offers a promising avenue to overcome data gaps and improve fisheries management in the Mediterranean where only a portion of the fishing fleet is publicly tracked.

Seasonal distribution of cetaceans in the European Atlantic and Mediterranean waters

As apex predators, cetaceans play an essential ecological role in marine ecosystems. Fluctuations in the abundance of these top predators linked to human activities can have detrimental consequences for the entire ecosystem. Cetaceans face numerous anthropogenic threats that can have both short and long-term effects. To ensure their conservation, it is necessary to identify changes in seasonal distributions at small and large scales. We aimed to model the seasonal distribution of the most abundant cetacean species in the European Atlantic waters and the Mediterranean Sea by assembling datasets collected over 16 years of surveys using a standardised line-transect protocol. Data were homogenised, detection functions fitted and effective strip widths estimated. We extracted environmental variables integrated over the water column, which we transformed using a principal component analysis (PCA). The dimensions of the PCA were then integrated as explanatory variables in a generalised additive model, taking seasonal and spatial effects into account to predict the seasonal cetacean distribution. We were able to highlight changes in the spatial distribution and/or density of cetaceans throughout the year at a large scale, considering environmental extrapolation areas to predict where environmental variables were sampled during the surveys. For minke (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) and fin (B. physalus) whales, densities varied over the seasons but not the distribution, suggesting a seasonal migration outside the survey areas. For common dolphins (Delphinus delphis), bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) and harbour porpoises (Phocoena phocoena), densities varied little but distributions did over the seasons. Finally, pilot whales (Globicephala spp), Risso’s (Grampus griseus) and striped (Stenella coeruleoalba) dolphins showed little seasonal variation in their distribution. Using monthly dynamic environmental variables at depth and PCA dimensions in habitat models, we produced maps of the seasonal distribution of cetaceans in the Mediterranean Sea and the European Atlantic waters to help fill gaps in our knowledge of cetacean distribution.

North Africa in the Foreign Policy of Catherine II

The 18th century represented a transformative era for the Russian Empire, characterized by substantial internal reforms and notable foreign policy achievements. Amidst sweeping modernization efforts, Russia secured significant victories on the international stage. Under Peter I, Russia "opened a window" to Europe, while Catherine II's reign expanded Russia's geopolitical reach to the Black Sea, facilitating access to fertile southern territories and establishing crucial maritime routes for international trade. These strategic advancements considerably enhanced Russia's influence and strategic capacities. During Catherine II’s reign, Russia also initiated its first forays into North Africa, a region previously beyond the empire's strategic horizon. Prior to gaining maritime access to the Black and Mediterranean Seas, Russian interaction with North African territories was negligible. However, the geopolitical landscape of Catherine's era prompted the necessity of engaging with Egypt, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, and Tripoli.This article investigates the principal foreign policy initiatives of Russia toward North Africa during the latter half of the 18th century. These efforts served as ancillary operations to Russia's overarching conflict with the Ottoman Empire. Throughout the Russo-Turkish Wars, Russia exploited separatist movements within the Ottoman periphery to weaken its adversary strategically. In times of peace, Russian priorities shifted to safeguarding merchant vessels in the Mediterranean from attacks by Barbary corsairs—specifically from Tunisia, Algeria, and Tripoli. To mitigate these threats, Russia employed diplomatic pressure on the Sublime Porte and sought to negotiate peace agreements with North African states. Nevertheless, these early Russian engagements in North Africa were tentative and often marked by limited success and instances of diplomatic adventurism, leaving several initiatives unrealized.Utilizing archival documents from the Archive of Foreign Policy of the Russian Empire (AVPRI) and the Russian State Archive of Ancient Acts (RGADA), this article provides a detailed examination of Russia’s diplomatic decision-making and negotiations with North African states. While prior Russian and foreign scholarship has analyzed specific events and countries in this context, this study seeks to offer a more holistic understanding of Russia’s foreign policy objectives and actions in North Africa during the 18th century.

In the wake of a boat: The politics of mourning the 18th of April 2015 shipwreck

On April 18, 2015, a fishing vessel was shipwrecked between Libya and Italy. The tragedy was the result of Italian and European border policies. More than 1,100 people (from across Africa and the Indian subcontinent) lost their lives in the vessel, making it the largest recorded civilian massacre to have occurred in the Mediterranean Sea. Beyond the huge number of dead, what distinguishes the shipwreck are the processes of the “translation” of its human and material remains, involving their displacement, material transformation and re-signification. In this paper, I summarize these processes in four stages, intertwining the vessel and the bodies of those who died inside it: their exhumation, naming, wake (whether artistic or forensic) and, finally, burial. By analyzing the work of translating the boat and bodies, and exploring what can be expressed through their different materialities, I show their intense social and political life, which led various actors involved to claim ownership over mourning. By delineating the mirrored relationship between the bodies and the boat, this article demonstrates the contribution death studies can make to the analysis of migration debris on the one hand, and, on the other, how tracing the social life of boats in the aftermath of migrant shipwrecks can enrich an analysis of the political life of border deaths.

Potential hazards of octinoxate (ethylhexyl methoxycinnamate) exposure in the seagrass Posidonia oceanica (L.) Delile: Experimental evidence

Interest has risen in recent years to assess the fate and impacts of organic ultraviolet (UV) filters in aquatic environments, after being recognized as contaminants of emerging concern. Octinoxate, also known as ethylhexyl methoxycinnamate (EHMC), is among the widely used UV filters in sunscreen formulations. Its potential toxicological effects in aquatic biota have led to precautionary actions in some jurisdictions, such as restricting and even banning its presence in commercial sunscreens. However, research data is lacking for effective regulation of sunscreen ingredients in Mediterranean countries. Our study evaluated the response of the seagrass Posidonia oceanica to EHMC under a short-term experimental setup, recreating summer conditions in aquaria subjected to different environmentally relevant concentrations for the Mediterranean Sea (minimum: 30.57 ng L−1, intermediate: 710 ng L−1 and maximum: 1420 ng L−1) and a control (no addition). Negative responses were evidenced in the physiology of P. oceanica due to EHMC exposure, with decreased gross primary production rates, loss of leaf chlorophyll content and inhibition of the overall nitrogen fixation associated with the seagrass tissues. Elevated oxidative stress biomarkers in P. oceanica under EHMC addition (i.e., catalase activity, polyphenols concentrations and alkaline phosphatase activity in leaves) reflect the activation of antioxidant defenses to counteract oxidative damages possibly induced in cellular components by the presence of the contaminant. Our results may conservatively imply the high ecological risk imposed to P. oceanica by maximum concentrations of EHMC in Mediterranean coastal waters. Moreover, they contribute as experimental evidence of the potentially detrimental effects of sunscreen pollution in a keystone species, such as P. oceanica, which is the main structural component of a priority habitat for conservation in the Mediterranean Sea, currently affected by multiple stress factors leading to its recession in recent years.

Effect of the Mediterranean Diet Supplemented With Olive Oil Versus the Low-Fat Diet on Serum Inflammatory and Endothelial Indexes Among Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Clinical Controlled Trials.

Inflammation and endothelial dysfunction are important risk factors for chronic diseases, including cardiovascular diseases and related mortality. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to assess the effects of 2 popular dietary patterns-a Mediterranean (MED) diet supplemented with olive oil and a low-fat diet (LFD)-on factors related to inflammation and endothelial function in adults. The following online databases were searched for related studies published until August 7, 2024: PubMed/Medline, Scopus, Clarivate Analytics Web of Science, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, and Google Scholar. Two independent researchers selected the studies based on the eligibility criteria. The effect sizes were expressed as Hedges' g with 95% CIs. A total of 16 eligible trials with 20 effect sizes were included in the analyses. This meta-analysis revealed that the MED diet supplemented with olive oil significantly improved all of the indicators of the study compared with the LFD, except in the case of E-selectin, in which a low and nonsignificant decrease was reported. Available evidence suggests that a MED diet supplemented with olive oil compared withthe LFD significantly improves inflammation and serum endothelial function in adults. PROSPERO registration no. CRD42023485718.

Spatial Distribution and Decadal Variability of 129I and 236U in the Western Mediterranean Sea

This study investigates the spatial and temporal distribution of the artificial radionuclides 129I and 236U in the Western Mediterranean Sea, focusing on their connection to radionuclide sources and circulation dynamics. Taking advantage of unprecedented precision of accelerator mass spectrometry, both tracers were firstly investigated in 2013. Here, we examine tracer observations obtained along four stations (re-)visited during the TAlPro2022 expedition in May 2022. Distributions of both 129I and 236U were related to water masses and clearly linked to local circulation patterns: a tracer-poor surface Atlantic inflow, a thining of the tracer minimum at intermediate depths, and a higher tracer signal in Western Mediterranean Deep Waters due to dense water formation in the Algero-Provençal basin. The comparison to 2013 tracer data indicated recent deep ventilation of the Tyrrhenian Sea, the mixing of deep waters and enhanced stratification in intermediate waters in the Algero-Provençal basin due to a temperature and salinity increase between 2013 and 2022. We estimate an overall 129I increase of 20% at all depths between 0 and 500m with respect to 2013, which is not accompanied by 236U. This suggests either the lateral transport of 129I from the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, or an additional source of this tracer. The inventories of 129I calculated for each water mass at the four stations point to the deposition of airborne releases from the nuclear reprocessing plants (La Hague and Sellafield) on the surface Mediterranean waters as the more likely explanation for the 129I increase. This work demonstrates the great potential of including measurements of anthropogenic radionuclides as tracers of ocean circulation. However, a refinement of the anthropogenic inputs is necessary to improve their use in understanding ventilation changes in the Mediterranean Sea.

Food Habits of Eriphia Verrucosa (Eriphiidae) and Pachygrapsus marmoratus (Grapsidae) in the Mediterranean Coast of Eastern Libya in Sosa

The current study aims to determine the type and abundance of food for two species of crabs, Pachygrapsus marmoratus and Eriphia verrucosa, that inhabit the rocky beaches in the south. Mediterranean coast. A total of 40 crabs of each species collected during 2022 were used. We found that P. marmoratus and Eriphia verrucosa are carnivores, meaning they feed on what is available in their environment. Gastric fullness was determined. Food availability in habitats. The abundance of food in the stomach varies according to varieties, but the general trend was molluscas and crustaceans > Cnidarians > Algae > Seaweed > Fish; this is for the Pachygrapsus crab. Marmoratus, but the general trend was molluscas and cnidarians > And fish > Seaweed > And crustaceans > And algae. This is for the crab Eriphia verrucosa. This study provides information on the abundance and type of food by examining the stomach and knowing the percentage of its fullness and the type and abundance of food in the stomach.

Spatial Distribution and Temporal Variation of Megafauna in Circalittoral and Bathyal Soft Bottoms of the Westernmost Biodiversity Hotspot of the Mediterranean Sea: The Alboran Ridge

The Alboran Sea is the westernmost sub-basin of the Mediterranean Sea, and it is connected to the Atlantic Ocean through the Strait of Gibraltar. The Alboran Ridge is located in the middle of the Alboran Sea and represents a hotspot of biodiversity in the Mediterranean Sea. Besides their critical importance, there are few studies on the communities and changes in biodiversity, and they mostly concentrate on infralittoral and circalittoral bottoms. In this work, the composition, structure and bathymetric and temporal changes of megafauna of the Alboran Ridge were examined. Samples were collected from MEDITS surveys carried out between 2012 and 2022 at depths ranging from 100 to 800 m. Analyses were performed separately for each of the taxonomic groups: osteichthyes, chondrichthyes, crustaceans, molluscs, echinoderms and “other groups”. There was no common spatial organization for each of the faunistic groups studied, although most of them displayed differences between the shelf and the slope. The continental shelf was characterized by the highest values of community metrics such as abundance, biomass, species richness and mean weight of species for all groups except for chondrichthyes and crustaceans. Decreasing trends of some community metrics were detected in some of the faunistic groups throughout the study period.

Nested cross-validation Gaussian process to model dimethylsulfide mesoscale variations in warm oligotrophic Mediterranean seawater

The study proposes an approach to elucidate spatiotemporal mesoscale variations of seawater Dimethylsulfide (DMS) concentrations, the largest natural source of atmospheric sulfur aerosol, based on the Gaussian Process Regression (GPR) machine learning model. Presently, the GPR was trained and evaluated by nested cross-validation across the warm-oligotrophic Mediterranean Sea, a climate hot spot region, leveraging the high-resolution satellite measurements and Mediterranean physical reanalysis together with in-situ DMS observations. The end product is daily gridded fields with a spatial resolution of 0.083° × 0.083° (~9 km) that spans 23 years (1998–2020). Extensive observations of atmospheric methanesulfonic acid (MSA), a typical biogenic secondary aerosol component from DMS oxidation, are consistent with the parameterized high-resolution estimates of sea-to-air DMS flux (FDMS). This represents substantial progress over existing coarse-resolution DMS global maps which do not accurately depict the seasonal patterns of MSA in the Mediterranean atmospheric boundary layer.

Spatiotemporal Evolution of Marine Heatwaves Globally

Abstract The spatiotemporal evolution of marine heatwaves (MHWs) is explored using a tracking algorithm called Ocetrac that provides objective characterization of MHW spatiotemporal evolution. Candidate MHW grid points are defined in detrended gridded sea temperature data using a seasonally varying temperature threshold. Identified MHW points are collected into spatially distinct objects using edge detection with weak sensitivity to edge detection and size percentile threshold criteria at each timestep. Ocetrac then uses 3D connectivity to determine if these objects are part of the same event, but Ocetrac only defines the full MHW event after all timesteps have been processed, limiting its use in predictability studies. Here Ocetrac is applied to monthly satellite sea surface temperature data from September 1981 through January 2021. The resulting MHWs are characterized by their intensity, duration, and total area covered. The global analysis shows that MHWs in the Gulf of Maine and Mediterranean Sea are spatially isolated, while major MHWs in the Pacific and Indian Oceans are connected in space and time. The largest and most long lasting MHW using this method lasts for 60 months from November 2013 to October 2018, encompassing previously identified MHW events including those in the Northeast Pacific (2014-2015), the Tasman Sea (2015-2016, 2017-2018), and the Great Barrier Reef (2016).

An exploration of exposure to river flood risk in Spain using the National Floodplain Mapping System

In Spain, human exposure to flooding continues to increase driven by changes in land use and population growth in urban and coastal areas. This study explores the geography of flood exposure in Spain in relation to human population, economic activities and points of special significance. The analysis is based on public flood hazard and risk mapping generated by water management administrators at the river basin district level. The data are published and accessible through the Spanish National Floodplain Mapping System (NFMS). The results show for first time, the spatial distribution of human population exposure, which amounts to at least 3,263,000 inhabitants nationwide (6.9% of the total Spanish population), the potential economic loss, totalling at least 122,132 million euros across Spain, and points of special significance classified into eleven different categories that have been analysed for all Spanish river basin districts. The results also indicate a higher exposure concentration along the Mediterranean coast.

Seasonal changes in the dietary patterns and reproductive aspects of deep-water rose shrimp Parapenaeus longirostris in the central Adriatic Sea

The deep-water rose shrimp Parapenaeus longirostris is one of the most important commercial species caught by trawl fisheries in the Mediterranean Sea. The species has a warm-water affinity and its landings are increasing in the whole basin. Detailed information on its trophic ecology, niche width and role within demersal food webs is dated or lacking in the Adriatic Sea, the most exploited basin of the Mediterranean. Therefore, to detect seasonal changes in diet and trophic levels, seasonal samplings were conducted in this area from January to December 2021, collecting 400 specimens, and integrating information from both stomach content analysis and stable isotope analyses (SIA). To identify potential links between the biological cycle of the species and fluctuations in energy demand, seasonal changes in fullness, as a proxy of feeding intensity, and gonadosomatic and hepatosomatic indices were assessed. The deep-water rose shrimp is confirmed to be a benthic feeder that predominantly preys on molluscs, crustaceans, fish, echinoderms and polychaetes. According to SIA, P. longirostris is defined as a secondary consumer. Observed seasonal dietary changes precede the reproductive periods, likely due to the need for more energetic prey.

Unravelling the Nexus of Beach Litter and Plant Species and Communities Along the Mediterranean Coasts: A Critical Literature Review

Beach litter, an anthropogenic and hazardous component, can interact with psammophilous plant species and communities. These are particularly prominent in the Mediterranean Basin, renowned for its highly specialized and unique flora but recognized as one of the areas that is globally most severely affected by marine litter. To provide a comprehensive picture and outline possible future directions, data on beach litter in the Mediterranean coastal ecosystems were collected through a bibliographic research. Overall, 103 studies investigated the presence of beach litter on the Mediterranean coasts, of which only 18 considered its relationship with psammophilous plant species and communities. Our research highlights that this topic is rather underexplored in the Mediterranean Basin and the need to develop a standardized protocol for the assessment of beach litter that can be applied consistently across different beaches and countries. Information collected through a standardized protocol might improve the management and conservation strategies for these fragile ecosystems.