Medipix2 Detector Research Articles

Medipix3 for dosimetry and real-time beam monitoring: first tests at a 60 MeV proton therapy facility

Charged particle therapy (CPT) is an advanced modality of radiation therapy which has grown rapidly worldwide, driven by recent developments in technology and methods of delivery. To ensure safe and high quality treatments, various instruments are used for a range of different measurements such as for quality assurance, monitoring and dosimetry purposes. With the emergence of new and enhanced delivery techniques, systems with improved capabilities are needed to exceed existing performance limitations of conventional tools. The Medipix3 is a hybrid pixel detector able to count individual protons with millisecond time resolution at clinical flux with near instant readout and count rate linearity. The system has previously demonstrated use in medical and other applications, showing wide versatility and potential for particle therapy. In this work we present measurements of the Medipix3 detector in the 60 MeV ocular proton therapy beamline at the Clatterbridge Cancer Centre, U.K. The beam current and lateral beam profiles were evaluated at multiple positions in the treatment line and compared with EBT3 Gafchromic film. The recorded count rate linearity and temporal analysis of the beam structure was measured with Medipix3 across the full range of available beam intensities, up to 3.12 × 1010 protons/s. We explore the capacity of Medipix3 to provide non-reference measurements and its applicability as a tool for dosimetry and beam monitoring for CPT. This is the first known time the performance of the Medipix3 detector technology has been tested within a clinical, high proton flux environment.

From the Higgs–Boson to Molecular Radiology

This paper delves into the history of MARS photon-counting CT and its technology origins in particle physics at the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN). The story begins at CERN, a world-class facility for research into fundamental physics. In the 1960s, charged particle experiments at CERN involved the slow and labor-intensive work of examining millions of photographs from bubble or spark chambers. In the 1970s, semiconductor detector technology changed nuclear and particle physics, and the world at large. As its name implies, semiconductor material conducts current, but this current can be modified, especially by a quantum of light or other radiation. During the development of semiconductor detector technology, the potential benefit of detecting X-ray photons became evident, leading to the development of the Medipix family of imaging devices in the 1990s. In the early 2000s, researchers from New Zealand took the Medipix detector and began to research and develop spectral molecular imaging for the clinic. Their work produced the MARS photon-counting CT, which promises to significantly advance current CT, develop a new standard of care, and improve health outcomes for millions of patients world-wide. Taking MARS to the clinic will be discussed, including investigation of potential clinical applications and the future direction of MARS technology.

High-resolution X-ray imaging applications of hybrid-pixel photon counting detectors Timepix

Medipix and Timepix type hybrid-pixel photon counting detectors were originally developed and intended as particle trackers at the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. Nevertheless, the applicability of Medipix technology is much broader and exceeds the field of high energy physics. The unique features of Medipix devices – namely the dark-current-free quantum-counting, energy-determination and steep point-spread function – make them a powerful tool for imaging using ionizing radiation. This work provides insight into the applied results of Medipix technology from fields of transmission X-ray imaging and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) imaging. The history of Medipix technology is briefly described. The detectors are then characterized by means of key parameters connected with imaging techniques. Medipix detectors are compared with conventional X-ray imaging cameras and their advantages and disadvantages are discussed. Finally, the methodology principles of high X-ray transmission radiography and XRF imaging are explained and a number of applications from different fields of science are demonstrated.

Investigation of the Generation of Positrons near the Threshold

The results of experimental studies of positron generation near the threshold carried out in 2018 at the ILC MSU femtosecond laser complex and the LUE-8 linear electron accelerator of the Institute for Nuclear Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences are presented. The measurements were carried out using three different detection methods: using a MEDIPIX detector; phosphor films and video cameras; as well as scintillation arrays and silicon photomultipliers.

Equalization of Medipix family detector energy thresholds using X-ray tube spectrum high energy cut-off

The Medipix detector family with single photon counting, photon energy discrimination and small pixel size makes it possible to carry out spectral X-ray imaging with high spatial resolution. In these detectors, the energy discrimination is performed independently in each pixel. For a good quality of spectral measurements, it is important that the globally defined energy threshold corresponds to the same energy in each pixel. The possibility of local adjustment of the pixel threshold is implemented by the chip design. In this paper, we present a method for thresholds equalization at an arbitrary energy using the X-ray tube spectrum high energy cut-off as a reference energy point. It is shown that the proposed method reduces the spread of pixel energy thresholds by more than 60 % in the energy range from 15 keV to 55 keV.

First results from the LUCID-Timepix spacecraft payload onboard the TechDemoSat-1 satellite in Low Earth Orbit

The Langton Ultimate Cosmic ray Intensity Detector (LUCID) is a payload onboard the satellite TechDemoSat-1, used to study the radiation environment in Low Earth Orbit (∼635 km). LUCID operated from 2014 to 2017, collecting over 2.1 million frames of radiation data from its five Timepix detectors on board. LUCID is one of the first uses of the Timepix detector technology in open space, with the data providing useful insight into the performance of this technology in new environments. It provides high-sensitivity imaging measurements of the mixed radiation field, with a wide dynamic range in terms of spectral response, particle type and direction. The data has been analysed using computing resources provided by GridPP, with a new machine learning algorithm that uses the Tensorflow framework. This algorithm provides a new approach to processing Medipix data, using a training set of human labelled tracks, providing greater particle classification accuracy than other algorithms. For managing the LUCID data, we have developed an online platform called Timepix Analysis Platform at School (TAPAS). This provides a swift and simple way for users to analyse data that they collect using Timepix detectors from both LUCID and other experiments. We also present some possible future uses of the LUCID data and Medipix detectors in space.

Spatio-energetic cross-talk in photon counting detectors: Numerical detector model (PcTK) and workflow for CT image quality assessment.

The interpixel cross-talk of energy-sensitive photon counting x-ray detectors (PCDs) has been studied and an analytical model (version 2.1) has been developed for double-counting between neighboring pixels due to charge sharing and K-shell fluorescence x-ray emission followed by its reabsorption (Taguchi K, etal., Medical Physics 2016;43(12):6386-6404). While the model version 2.1 simulated the spectral degradation well, it had the following problems that has been found to be significant recently: (1) The spectrum is inaccurate with smaller pixel sizes; (2) the charge cloud sizemust be smaller than the pixel size; (3) the model underestimates the spectrum/counts for 10-40keV; and (4) the model version 2.1 cannot handlen-tuple-counting withn>2 (i.e., triple-counting or higher). These problems are inherent to the design of the model version 2.1; therefore, we developed a new model and addressed these problems in this study. We propose a new PCD cross-talk model (version 3.2; Pc TK for "photon counting toolkit") that is based on a completely different design concept from the previous version. It uses a numerical approach and starts with a 2-D model of charge sharing (as opposed to an analytical approach and a 1-D model with version 2.1) and addresses all of the four problems. The model takes the following factors into account: (1) shift-variant electron density of the charge cloud (Gaussian-distributed), (2) detection efficiency, (3) interactions between photons and PCDs via photoelectric effect, and (4) electronic noise. Correlated noisy PCD data can be generated using either a multivariate normal random number generator or a Poisson random number generator. The effect of the two parameters, the effective charge cloud diameter (d0 ) and pixel size (dpix ), was studied and results were compared with Monte Carlo simulations and the previous model version 2.1. Finally, a script for the workflow for CT image quality assessment has been developed, which started with a few material density images, generated material-specific sinogram (line integrals) data, noisy PCD data with spectral distortion using the model version 3.2, and reconstructed PCD- CT images for four energy windows. The model version 3.2 addressed all of the four problems listed above. The spectra withdpix =56-113μm agreed with that of Medipix3 detector withdpix =55-110μm without charge summing mode qualitatively. The counts for 10-40keV were larger than the previous model (version 2.1) and agreed with MC simulations very well (root-mean-square difference values with model version 3.2 were decreased to 16%-67% of the values with version 2.1). There were many non-zero off-diagonal elements withn-tuple-counting withn>2 in the normalized covariance matrix of 3×3 neighboring pixels. Reconstructed images showed biases and artifacts attributed to the spectral distortion due to the charge sharing and fluorescence x rays. We have developed a new PCD model for spatio-energetic cross-talk and correlation between PCD pixels. The workflow demonstrated the utility of the model for general or task-specific image quality assessments for the PCD- CT.Note: The program (Pc TK) and the workflow scripts have been made available to academic researchers. Interested readers should visit the website (pctk.jhu.edu) or contact the corresponding author.

Searches for magnetic monopoles and beyond with MoEDAL at the LHC

The MoEDAL experiment at the LHC is optimised to detect highly-ionising particles such as magnetic monopoles, dyons and (multiply) electrically-charged stable massive particles predicted in a number of theoretical scenarios. MoEDAL, deployed in the LHCb cavern, combines passive nuclear track detectors with magnetic monopole trapping volumes, while cavern backgrounds are being monitored with an array of MediPix detectors. The detector concept and its physics reach is presented with emphasis given to recent results on monopole searches providing the best limits on high magnetic charges in colliders. The potential to search for heavy, long-lived supersymmetric electrically-charged particles and multi-charged states is also discussed.

X-ray coherent diffraction imaging: Sequential inverse problems simulation

Improvement of spatial coherence in third generation synchrotron beamlines made possible the development of X-ray plane-wave coherent diffraction imaging technique (plane-wave cdi), which enables 3D imaging at nanometric resolution. In this work, we first simulated the influence of detector geometry by comparing reconstruction quality of planar samples made of gold nanoparticles. We compared a commercially available detector geometry with the next Medipix3-based large area detector designed for the next fourth generation Brazilian synchrotron, sirius. The spatial resolution was highly improved, from 7.2 nm for the commercial geometry to 4.8 nm for the Medipix3 detector by keeping the same global image quality. Finally, global image qualities were compared by adjusting the sample-to-detectors distances at a given spatial resolution. For thick samples reconstruction at such high nanometric resolutions, the main limitation of current reconstruction approaches are due to the complex wave propagation within the sample, given by the inhomogeneous Helmholtz equation. We proposed an iterative method to reconstruct the complex refraction index. This method enables to keep the image quality almost constant beyond the resolution limit for thick samples made of gold nanoparticles in water.

Using the Medipix3 detector for direct electron imaging in the range 60 keV to 200 keV in electron microscopy

Hybrid pixel sensor technology such as the Medipix3 represents a unique tool for electron imaging. We have investigated its performance as a direct imaging detector using a Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) which incorporated a Medipix3 detector with a 300 μm thick silicon layer compromising of 256×256 pixels at 55 μm pixel pitch. We present results taken with the Medipix3 in Single Pixel Mode (SPM) with electron beam energies in the range, 60–200 keV . Measurements of the Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) and the Detective Quantum Efficiency (DQE) were investigated. At a given beam energy, the MTF data was acquired by deploying the established knife edge technique. Similarly, the experimental data required to determine DQE was obtained by acquiring a stack of images of a focused beam and of free space (flatfield) to determine the Noise Power Spectrum (NPS).

Table-top phase-contrast imaging employing photon-counting detectors towards mammographic applications

In mammography the difficult task to detect microcalcifications (≈ 100 μm) and low contrast structures in the breast has been a topic of interest from its beginnings. The possibility to improve the image quality requires the effort to employ novel X-ray imaging techniques, such as phase-contrast, and high resolution detectors. Phase-contrast techniques are promising tools for medical diagnosis because they provide additional and complementary information to traditional absorption-based X-ray imaging methods. In this work a Hamamatsu microfocus X-ray source with tungsten anode and a photon counting detector (Timepix operated in Medipix mode) was used. A significant improvement in the detection of phase-effects using Medipix detector was observed in comparison to an standard flat-panel detector. An optimization of geometrical parameters reveals the dependency on the X-ray propagation path and the small angle deviation. The quantification of these effects was achieved taking into account the image noise, contrast, spatial resolution of the phase-enhancement, absorbed dose, and energy dependence.

Performance and applications of GaAs:Cr-based Medipix detector in X-ray CT

In the recent years, the method of single photon counting X-ray μ-CT is being actively developed and applied in various fields. Results of our studies carried out using the MARS μ-CT scanner equipped with GaAs Medipix-based camera are presented. The procedure of mechanical alignment of the scanner is described, including direct and indirect measurements of the spatial resolution. The software chain for data processing and reconstruction has been developed and reported. We demonstrate the possibility to apply the scanner for research in geology and medicine and provide demo images of geological samples (chrome spinellids, titanium magnetite ore) and medical samples (atherosclerotic plaque, abdominal aortic aneurysm). The first results of multi-energy scans using GaAs:Cr-based camera are shown.

Development of edgeless TSV X-ray detectors

We report about the activity and progress on the development of TSV edgeless detectors at DESY. One part of the development is Through Silicon Via (TSV) technology for the Medipix3RX readout chip (ROC). TSV technology is a concept of connecting readout chips to readout electronics. Instead of wire-bonding which introduces a large dead area, TSV enables connection through the ROC itself. By replacing wire-bonding with TSV, the dead space between detector modules will be reduced from around 7 mm to only 1.6 mm. The thickness of the wafer will be 200 μ m, with a via diameter of 60 μ m. Inside of the via, a 5 μ m thick copper layer will be used as a conducting layer. On the back side of the chip a Redistribution Layer (RDL) will be deposited. For the RDL structure, 5 μ m thick copper with 40 μ m wide conductive lines will be used. Bump bonding of the sensor plus ROC assembly to ceramic readout board will be optimized in terms of material and bonding temperature. The second part of the project is the development of the edgeless sensor units using active edge sensor technology. Active edge sensors have been simulated with Synopsys TCAD for different polarities including p-on-n, p-on-p, n-on-p and n-on-n with p-spray or p-stop for different thicknesses from 150 μ m to 500 μ m. Results show that the bending of the electric field close to the active edge is leading to image distortion on the sensor edge. In addition, the current design of active-edge sensors shows very poor radiation hardness. We are currently working on the development of a radiation hard active-edge sensor with optimized imaging quality. The final goal of this development is to make Large Area Medipix Detector (LAMBDA) with TSV edgeless units.

Validation of Geant4 Pixel Detector Simulation Framework by Measurements With the Medipix Family Detectors

Monte Carlo simulations are an extensively used tool for developing and understanding radiation detector systems. In this work, we used results of several chips and readout modes of the Medipix detector family to validate a Geant4 based pixel detector framework, developed in our group, that is capable of simulating particle tracking, charge transport in the sensor material and different readout schemes. We experimentally verified the simulation with different detector geometries in terms of pixel pitch and size as well as sensor material and sensor thickness. The single pixel mode (SPM) and charge summing mode (CSM) in Medipix3 were evaluated with fluorescence and synchrotron radiation. The integration of the charge sensitive amplifier functionality in the simulation framework allowed to simulate the time-over-threshold mode of the Timepix chip. Simulation and measurement have been compared in terms of spectral resolution using threshold scans in photon counting mode (Medipix3) and time over threshold mode (Timepix). Further comparisons were done using X-ray tube spectra and beta decay to cover a broad energy range. Additionally, TCAD simulations are performed as a comparison to a well-established simulation method. The results show good agreement between simulation and measurement.

MPX Detectors as LHC Luminosity Monitor

A network of 16 Medipix-2 (MPX) silicon pixel devices was installed in the ATLAS detector cavern at CERN. It was designed to measure the composition and spectral characteristics of the radiation field in the ATLAS experiment and its surroundings. This study demonstrates that the MPX network can also be used as a self-sufficient luminosity monitoring system. The MPX detectors collect data independently of the ATLAS data-recording chain, and thus they provide independent measurements of the bunch-integrated ATLAS/LHC luminosity. In particular, the MPX detectors located close enough to the primary interaction point are used to perform van der Meer calibration scans with high precision. Results from the luminosity monitoring are presented for 2012 data taken at sqrt(s) = 8 TeV proton-proton collisions. The characteristics of the LHC luminosity reduction rate are studied and the effects of beam-beam (burn-off) and beam-gas (single bunch) interactions are evaluated. The systematic variations observed in the MPX luminosity measurements are below 0.3% for one minute intervals.

Influence of magnetic fields on charge sharing caused by diffusion in medipix detectors with a Si sensor

The spatial and energy resolution of hybrid photon counting pixel detectors like the Timepix detector can suffer from charge sharing. Due to diffusion an initially point-like charge carrier distribution generated by ionizing radiation becomes a typically Gaussian-like distribution when arriving at the pixel electrodes. This leads to loss of charge information in edge pixels if the amount of charge in the pixel fall below the discriminator threshold. In this work we investigated the reduction of charge sharing by applying a magnetic field parallel to the electric drift field inside the sensor layer. The reduction of diffusion by a magnetic field is well known for gases. With realistic assumptions for the mean free path of charge carriers in semiconductors, a similar effect should be observable in solid state materials. We placed a Medipix-2 detector in the magnetic field of a medical MR device with a maximum magnetic field of 3T and illuminated it with photons and α-particles from 241Am. We observe that with a magnetic field of 3000mT the mean cluster size is reduced by ~0.75%.

A novel and fast way for energy calibrating the Medipix-2 low discrimination threshold

The Medipix-2 MXR is a single photon counting imaging detector developed at Cern. It provides 65,536 pixels in a 256 × 256 array, each equipped with low and high energy discriminators and a counter. The low (and high) threshold settings can be used to collect energy-resolved radiographic images. Applications include high-dynamic range, low-noise and material-resolved X-ray imaging. Each pixel has a different electronic gain and offset, so the energy calibration for each pixel needs to be determined separately. The Medipix detector provides only global low and high threshold settings, which are applied to all pixels. However, each pixel has additional 3-bit offset settings for the low and high thresholds. These settings can be used to fine-tune the thresholds for individual pixels and their calibration also needs to be determined. This paper describes a novel and fast method for calibrating the low energy discrimination threshold setting by using X-ray tube transmission spectra through different materials.

Biological object recognition in μ-radiography images

This study presents an applicability of real-time microradiography to biological objects, namely to horse chestnut leafminer, Cameraria ohridella (Insecta: Lepidoptera, Gracillariidae) and following image processing focusing on image segmentation and object recognition. The microradiography of insects (such as horse chestnut leafminer) provides a non-invasive imaging that leaves the organisms alive. The imaging requires a high spatial resolution (micrometer scale) radiographic system. Our radiographic system consists of a micro-focus X-ray tube and two types of detectors. The first is a charge integrating detector (Hamamatsu flat panel), the second is a pixel semiconductor detector (Medipix2 detector). The latter allows detection of single quantum photon of ionizing radiation. We obtained numerous horse chestnuts leafminer pupae in several microradiography images easy recognizable in automatic mode using the image processing methods. We implemented an algorithm that is able to count a number of dead and alive pupae in images. The algorithm was based on two methods: 1) noise reduction using mathematical morphology filters, 2) Canny edge detection. The accuracy of the algorithm is higher for the Medipix2 (average recall for detection of alive pupae =0.99, average recall for detection of dead pupae =0.83), than for the flat panel (average recall for detection of alive pupae =0.99, average recall for detection of dead pupae =0.77). Therefore, we conclude that Medipix2 has lower noise and better displays contours (edges) of biological objects. Our method allows automatic selection and calculation of dead and alive chestnut leafminer pupae. It leads to faster monitoring of the population of one of the world's important insect pest.

Study of edgeless radiation detector with 3D spatial mapping technique

Edgeless radiation detector has gained increased attention due to its superiority in the defect-free edge fabrication and the capability to minimize the insensitive area at the detector edge. The doped edge in the edgeless detector is at the same potential with the back plane and causes a local distortion of the electric field at the detector edge. The deformed electric field alters the charge collection of the edge pixel and leads to an inaccurate charge interpolation. To study the influence of active edges on the response of edge pixels, we used an advanced X-ray based 3D spatial mapping technique to visually show the charge collection volumes of pixels. Various edgeless detectors with diverse polarities, thicknesses and edge-to-pixel distances were investigated. For the n-on-p (n+/p−/p+) edgeless detector, the mapping shows that the p-spray isolation method has the advantage of achieving a greater sensitive edge region compared to the p-stop method. And the p-on-p (p+/p−/n+) edgeless detector, reported for the first time, functions for both spatial and energy signals. The n-type edgeless detectors were studied together with a standard Medipix detector with the guard ring design. The results show that the edgeless detector is capable of maximally utilizing the edge region of the detector as the charge sensitive volume, while the standard Medipix detector has still vast insensitive region at the edge. The X-ray spectroscopic measurements with 241Am and 55Fe sources performed on all detectors gives a similar conclusion and proves the 3D spatial mapping results.

Separation efficiency of the MASHA facility for short-lived mercury isotopes

The mass-separator MASHA built to identify Super Heavy Elements by their mass-to-charge ratios is described. The results of the off- and on-line measurements of its separation efficiency are presented. In the former case four calibrated leaks of noble gases were used. In the latter the efficiency was measured via 284 MeV \(^{40}\)Ar beam and with using the hot catcher. The ECR ion source was used in both cases. The \(\alpha \)-radioactive isotopes of mercury produced in the complete fusion reaction \(^{40}\)Ar+\(^{144}\)Sm\(\rightarrow ^{184-xn}\)Hg+xn were detected at the mass-separator focal plane. The half-lives and the separation efficiency for the short-lived mercury isotopes were measured. Potentialities of the MEDIPIX detector system have been demonstrated for future use at the mass-separator MASHA.