Medieval India Research Articles

The Historical Sustainable Cities In India: A Survey Of Sustainable Practices Followed In Cities Of India In Ancient And Medieval Times

The role played by India in achieving the sustainable development goals by 2030 is extremely crucial owning to its large but impoverished population. It is necessary for India to achieve these goals so that the world can achieve them. India is currently lagging in many of the goals, targets and sub-targets. But there was a time when India was the centre of sustainable lifestyle. Indian cities were well planned with remarkable sanitation and cleanliness. The excellent drainage system of Harappan cities is well known to everyone. The cities were divided into various layers with the most important structures located on citadel. The great bath of Mohenjodaro, the great granary of Harappa, the water conservation tank of Dholavira and the dockyard of Lothal are living examples of sustainable practices in those sustainable cities. The imperial city of Pataliputra is another example of a sustainable city. The city administration comprised of thirty members which was divided into six committees. There was a separate committee for registration of births and deaths. Similarly, the life of Kanyakubja as described by Hiuen Tsang reflects the sustainable lifestyle of the ruler as well as the people of the city. The early medieval age was categorized as dark age by many historians. But these ages have also produced remarkable cities. Anhilwada (present day Patan, Gujarat) was capital of Solanki dynasty of Gujarat in which we can find Rani-ki-Vaav which is an excellent water conservation tank accessible to the population of the city. Similarly, Bhoj of Parmar dynasty constructed several lakes, tanks and ponds in his capital city Dhar. It was the imperial city of Vijayanagar that can be described as textbook example of a sustainable city. The city was surrounded by seven walls. The agricultural farms in the vicinity which fed the city were fortified. The city was well planned into residential, commercial and military areas. This paper analyses the sustainable structures, practices and lifestyle that existed in the prominent cities of ancient and medieval India.

The Growth and Development of Medicine in Medieval India: The Age of the Delhi Sultans

The Growth and Development of Medicine in Medieval India: The Age of the Delhi Sultans

Against Infinite Nothingness: Ultimate Ground vs Metaphysical Nihilism in Indian Philosophy

Abstract The Idea of a unified foundation of all reality has long been core to many attempts at a fundamental ontology, as well as many arguments for the divine. In medieval India a cluster of arguments for metaphysical inheritance, causal entanglement, the impossibility of fundamental relations and more, were advanced together to show there must be an ultimate and unified ground. But foundationalism has been under attack in both recent metaphysics, and Buddhist philosophy. This article unpacks Vedānta’s defense of divine foundationalism against Madhyamaka Buddhism’s metaphysical nihilism. Firstly, we look at how inheritance arguments for ultimate ground aimed to circumvent the possibility of infinite regress. Secondly, we assess three arguments that this ground is a unified modal anchor, with entangled causal power, providing a connective medium for all phenomena. We address some caveats and limitations, but go on to argue that if they are right, they circumvent the Buddhists’ ‘dualistic’ assumption that if the empirical world is mere imagined convention, it needs no explanation. Monists and nihilists are allies against excessively realist ontologies, but these arguments make a compelling case for some unified fundamental nature from which, as the Upaniṣads put it, all things emerge like sparks from a fire.

Perceptions of urbanity, urbanization and town life in medieval India: Insights from Banarasidas’s Ardhakathanak

Perceptions of urbanity, urbanization and town life in medieval India: Insights from Banarasidas’s Ardhakathanak

KATHA KEERTHAN, AS AN ART AND BEYOND…

Katha Keerthan is a popular performing art that is widely recognized among people. This art form, known as Katha Keerthan, is actively promoting religious thoughts and striving to unite people throughout India. This is especially true in the southern part of India. Medieval India used this art, initially a medium for the praise of God and later for the propagation of religious ideas, to revive religion. It is used in modern India to promote government schemes and raise public awareness about various issues. The use of art as a vehicle for various ideas other than religious premises has faced strong opposition. There has been a significant amount of serious thought towards the revival of art. The present article tries to examine all these aspects through a historical lens.

Guru Nanak and The Jogis Tradition: A Historical Context

Guru Nanak’s attitude to contemporary religion is informed by ideas and values which induce him not to identify himself with any of the existing forms of established religion. Infact, he applies those ideas consistently to evaluate all contemporary belief and practice. The closest he comes to an explicit appreciation for any kind of individuals, it is for the sadhs and sants.[i] Guru Nanak came in the line of the great saints, who emphasized only personal experience of the Divine is what the philosopher calls “mystic experience” as the core of true religion. [ii] There are many references to siddhas, yogins (jogis), nathas and avadhutas, not only in the Japu and the Sidh-gosthi but also in many other hymns and devotional songs by Guru Nanak and preserved in Guru Granth Sahib, said to have been complied in 1604A.D.[iii] Guru Nanak’s encounters with jogis have remained a favourite theme of Sikh literature for nearly four centuries. This tradition was well established in the time of Bhai Gurdas in whose Vars we have one of the earliest interpretations of Guru Nanak’s attitude towards the jogis.[iv] The present paper seeks to highlights the Guru Nanak ideas associated with the siddhas, yogi and nathas of medieval India.

THE IMPACT OF RAJPUT ARCHITECTURE STYLE ON CONTEMPORARY RESORT DESIGN IN JAIPUR RAJASTHAN

This research paper explores the development of Rajput architecture design giving shape to examining the historical factors, in the broader context of the Rajputana region in medieval India. By researching the socio-political landscape, cultural influences, distinctive architectural features, conservation system, regional variations, cultural Content of medieval socio-political influences, and distinctive conservation Variations, this research on the Rajput dynasty's rich architectural heritage provides an understanding of the broader. Building on this historical foundation, Studies in contemporary resort design of analysis the incorporation of Rajput architectural elements such as arches, domes, Jharokha, chhatri, and Lattice work. Through qualitative analysis and case studies, this research examines the impact of these elements on aesthetics, utility, and guest experiences in modern resorts. This study bridges the gap between historical and modern design, Rajput architecture of permanent relevance, and contemporary architecture of landscapes giving shaped the role of intense appreciation having contribution.

Introduction of Fruit and Nut Crops in Medieval India

India grows a large variety of fruits and nuts (hard-shelled fruit or seed) which play an important role in the economy of the country. A large number of fruit and nut yielding species grown in India are introductions during the medieval period (1200-1800 A.D.) from foreign countries and centres of origin of cultivated plants. Some of these species introduced have been successful and later became important export crops such as cashewnut and groundnut. Much of the information on the early history of plant introduction is scattered in archaeological accounts, ethnographies, gazetteers and travelogues of several visitors and dignitaries to India, and in the classical works, memoirs and autobiographies of Moghul emperors published during the medieval period. The Present account deals with the introduction of fruit and nut crops in India during the medieval period. (1200-1800 A.D.). There is need for collaborative work between the plant systematist, horticulturist, linguist and biohistorian for compilation of an authenticated history of pomology and horticulture in India.

Performers and Sites of the Ashwamedha Yagya in Medieval India

India has a very rich cultural history. The Ashwamedh Yagya, an important ritual and experiment from Vedic times, aimed to refine consciousness. Since the Vedic era, many Ashwamedha Yagyas have been performed. In light of scriptural texts and archaeological findings, the present study aimed to retrospectively analyze the performers and sites of the Ashwamedha Yagya in medieval India. The study found that 27 kings from 18 dynasties had performed a total of 81 documented Ashwamedha Yagyas from the 1st century BCE to the 18th century CE. Although the study tried to comprehensively identify all instances of Ashwamedha performed in medieval India, there may be more awaiting further study. The study observed that these findings were based on archaeological evidence, including copper plate inscriptions, stone inscriptions, brick and pillar inscriptions, yagya kunds, and coins. Ashwamedha sites were present throughout present-day India. An interdisciplinary approach combining archaeological, inscriptional, scriptural, and sociological findings, along with expertise from ritualistic scholars, could unveil new research directions on the rich history of Ashwamedha Yagya in Indian culture.

Growth and Development of Medicine in Medieval India: Delhi Sultan Era

Growth and Development of Medicine in Medieval India: Delhi Sultan Era

A review on the principles of Rasa Shastra in Indian System of Medicine and its homology with Modern Chemical Processes

Ayurveda medicine is one of the oldest holistic healing sciences it was developed around 3000 years ago. Different branches of science were nurtured by it like biology, genetics, microbiology, clinical medicine, surgery, astronomic, pharmaceutics and metallurgy etc. In Ayurveda system of medicine various formulations have been described in the traditional literature, which adopted the processes which are quite similar to the processes used today in modern medicine for formulation of various dosage forms to get the desired effect for the optimum period. Science and technology in ancient and medieval India covered all the major branches of human knowledge and activities. In any, early civilization, metallurgy has remained an activity central to all civilizations from the Bronze Age and the Iron Age, to all other civilizations that followed. Various chemicals like common salt, alkali, borax, and compounds of elements Cu, Fe, Hg and Au were used as well as techniques for making of the alloys were also very common. The applicability of natural preservatives like oil, sugar, salt were also very much known in ancient time. However, the terms used as stated in traditional literature were not similar to the modern times. Also, the acidic and alcoholic fermented products were prepared very commonly.

«МЕТОДОЛОГИЧЕСКИЙ АНАРХИЗМ» ПОЛА ФЕЙЕРАБЕНДА И ЭПИСТЕМОЛОГИЧЕСКИЙ СТАТУС ДЕЯТЕЛЬНОСТИ УЧЕНОГО В ПОЛИТАРНУЮ ЭПОХУ

The relevance of the article is determined by the importance of comprehension and theoretical explication of the origins and forms of specifically scientific cognition of objective reality, which originated in the civilizations of the ancient and medieval East (ancient Egypt and Babylon, ancient and medieval India and China, the medieval Arab-Muslim East), generally designated in the article as «politary societies». The purpose of the article is to show the possibility and effectiveness of applying the concept of the so-called «methodological anarchism» developed by the American philosopher Paul Feyerabend (1924–1994) to the epistemological activity that took place over the course of about three millennia in societies of the politary type. As the main method of research, the author uses the ascent from the abstract to the concrete: from the abstract generalized description of the methodological principles proclaimed by Feyerabend, the author moves on to the concrete realities of the epistemological discourse of the politary epoch, demonstrating the relevance of these principles in this respect and the fruitfulness of the coverage of politary science from this perspective. Three principles of Feyerabend’s were chosen as the supporting pillars of the study: 1) «Leave science to scientists!»; 2) «Anything goes!»; 3) separation of science from the state. The unity of the logical and the historical acts as an auxiliary method: the concrete-historical features of natural-scientific and mathematical work under the conditions of politarism appear as more or less pronounced individualized specifications of those general, universal criteria of scientific activity which modern philosophy of science tries to logically reconstruct, and which (as Feyerabend never tired of showing) are still very far from perfection. As a result of the study, the author draws conclusions that have a novelty. First of all, the very possibility of successful application of the concepts developed by Feyerabend on the material of the history of Western science, far beyond the socio-cultural sphere with which the American thinker directly dealt is substantiated. Secondly, it has been demonstrated that the reasons that ensured, on the one hand, the success of scientific and cognitive research, and, on the other hand, hindered it and harmed it, were, in fact, of the same type both on the European continent and in the politary East. Thirdly, it is shown that it is the acquisition by the research community of subjectness, the right to independently form research priorities, that is the condition for obtaining significant scientific innovations, and a condition that works in any culture and in any era - from antiquity to the present. The practical significance of the work carried out by the author of the article is seen in the fact that a methodological basis is created for a stricter demarcation between the concepts of «science» and «proto- (pre-) science» and for qualified theoretical and moral assessments of the intellectual and creative work that was done by scientists of the ancient and medieval East.

Symmetry, architectural culture and theory – the case of Hindu architectural texts ‘shruti/śruti’ and ‘smriti’ in ‘śāstra pramāṇam’ tradition

Symmetry is one of the most fundamental and ubiquitous phenomena in architecture and theory. In this article, we investigated Hindu architectural treatises of ancient Vedic literature that conceptualised and described symmetry in the theory of medieval India. The case focused on Shruti/Śruti and Smriti texts based on Śāstra pramāṇam tradition and asked how architectural treatises transmitted the narratives on symmetry through cultural dynamics, wisdom and heritage. The paper revealed that architectural texts approached symmetry in architectural culture knowledge.

World Literature: An Indian Way of Thinking

The idea of the world is a dynamic phenomenon, and the development of world literature is tied to both literary and extra-literary events. Worldwide literary centers can be found in many locations spanning both time and space. The concept of the world, or Visva (Sanskrit), is considerably older even if world literature has been a discursive framework that has affected the literary structures of many languages around the world since the 19th century. “Vasudhaiba Kutumbakam,” or the universal neighborhood, is a term from ancient Indian literature that attests to the age of the concept of Vasudha, or the world. As a result of numerous trade routes, cultural interactions, the expansion of ancient and medieval kingdoms, and the transit of literary writings, cosmopolitan literary spaces were created in various parts of t8he world. Additionally, the absence of modern cartography and the sovereign state system enabled constant changes in the borders of the empires, resulting in spaces with many languages. India has connections to several Asian nations dating back to ancient times, as well as to Europe since the medieval period. The diverse traditions of human thought from various parts of the world are carried in Indian literature. Significant literary contacts and the ongoing formation of new literary legacies were witnessed in the East, Middle East, South East, and South Asia of the present. The Sufi and Bhakti traditions, the reception of Indian epics as oral, written, and performative texts in South-East Asia, and the role of the royal courts as multilingual literary spaces continue to broaden the intellectual traditions of Bharat (India). Thus, the pre-modern development of world literature seemed intriguing and a subject worth exploring for literary professionals. This essay contends that ancient and medieval India and Bengal, particularly their languages, continually bargained to expand their intellectual frontiers.

A Comparative Study of Medieval Religious Spirituality: Bonaventure’s Theory of Six Stages of Spirituality and Śaṅkara’s Sixfold Practice Theory of Advaita Vedānta

In medieval India, the desire for “the unity of Brahman and Self” was present in the Vedānta tradition of Hinduism. Adi Śaṅkara, the master of Vedānta philosophy, proposed the six-fold sādhana: mind control, sense control, mental tranquility, endurance, potential faith, and concentration. These six-fold practices can help Vedānta followers realize unity with Brahman. In medieval Christianity, mysticism was regarded as an important path for Christians to seek a closer relationship with God. Pursuing “the unity of God and man” became the goal and direction of Christians at that time, which could be achieved through spirituality. Bonaventure, known as the Seraphic Doctor, was a representative figure of medieval Christian mysticism. He proposed six stages of spirituality: Sense, Imagination, Reason, Intelligence, Understanding, and Spark of Conscience, through which one can achieve unity with God. This article attempts to compare Bonaventure’s theory of six stages of spirituality with Śaṅkara’s idea of six-fold practice and discover the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western religious spirituality in the Middle Ages. Through this comparison, we can further explore the medieval religious believers’ desire for ultimate reality and try to find the possibility of dialogue between Christianity and Advaita Vedānta.

Epidemics Diseases in the Mediaeval India “Some Examples in Baburnama”

Health problems have been the common problem of all civilizations since the beginning of human history. At the point of diagnosis and treatment of these health problems, each civilization has endeavored to develop its own methods and continues to do so. Therefore, as in every region of the world, the societies living in medieval India were exposed to various diseases and developed their own treatment methods for the treatment of these diseases. In this study, some of the diseases and treatment methods encountered in medieval India, especially in the Mughal period, have been tried to be analyzed. However, since it is not possible to cover a whole period in a single article, only the diseases mentioned in Babur Shah's memoir, Baburnama, and the medical methods used in the treatment of these diseases are discussed. We believe that our examination of the diseases and treatment methods mentioned in this work, which has an important place in terms of both Turkish-Islamic history and Indian history, will contribute to the scientific researches to be carried out in similar fields and, for example, to make a comparison in the old-new context in terms of diagnosis and treatment of diseases such as poisoning, malaria, fever, dehydration, wound care, respiratory infections, horse epidemics, rheumatoid arthritis.

IMAGING SPIRITUALITY: AN ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY OF SURFACE DECORATION IN MARYAM ZAMANI MOSQUE

The study while examining the surface decoration/ornamentation in Maryam Zamani Mosque looks at the historical as well as cultural significance of mosque interiors in Islamic world. In doing so it is fully immersed in socio-political underpinnings that define Mughal and/or Islamic aesthetic thrusts in Pre-Modern India. It also addresses some well-established figments about the status of representational iconography in Islamic Art and compares the concept of aniconism in various indigenous traditions. ‘Non-figural’ as a scheme of ornamentation mediate the divine presence for the believers but it also effectively stimulates the senses towards the unconfined realities spiritually elevating the viewer. In its broader scope, it is a study of change of decorative features of religious buildings in Medieval India- from figurative to abstract, from earthly to spiritual or from ordinary to ideal. In addition to the conventional historiographic methods of research, ethnographic approach is employed to achieve the paradigm of socially-engaged art history for the global audience.

Book review: Sajal Nag, ed., The Mughals and the North-East: Encounter and Assimilation in Medieval India

Sajal Nag, ed., The Mughals and the North-East: Encounter and Assimilation in Medieval India (New Delhi: Manohar Publisher and Distributors), 2023, 535 pp., ₹2,695 (Hb).

Book review: Ratttan Lal Hangloo, Enquiries in Medieval India: Religion, Society, Culture and Polity

Ratttan Lal Hangloo, Enquiries in Medieval India: Religion, Society, Culture and Polity (Delhi: Primus Books), 2022, 199 pp., ₹1,125 (Hb).

The Position of Kabir Bhajans in North Indian Music

Kabirdas is a poet who lived in medieval India. He visioned to spread social purity with philosophical thinking through the poems which are termed as Nirgun bhajans. Bhajan is simply known for chanting the qualities and the physical appearance of Hindu deity/deities. The bhajans or poems composed by Kabirdas are not consisting of the latter, but they are also put under the term 'bhajan' in terms of lyrics and their musical presentation. Traditionally, bhajans refer to devotional songs that depict the qualities and physical attributes of various deities. However, Kabirdas' bhajans deviate from this norm by focusing on different themes, while maintaining a certain essence of traditional bhajans. This study investigates how the melodies of Kabir bhajans effects in the absence of chanting the qualities and the physical appearance of a Hindu deity/deities in the lyrics. This study also aims to look at the broader significance of devotional music in promoting social and philosophical ideals in medieval India.