Medication-related Hospital Research Articles

Potentially high-risk medication categories and unplanned hospitalizations: a case\u2013time\u2013control study

Empirical data of medication-related hospitalization are very limited. We aimed to investigate the associations between 12 high risk medication categories (diabetic agents, diuretics, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), anticoagulants, antiplatelets, antihypertensives, antiarrhythmics, anticonvulsants, antipsychotics, antidepressants, benzodiazepine (BZD)/Z-hypnotics, and narcotics) and unplanned hospitalizations. A population-based case–time–control study was performed using Taiwan’s National Health Insurance Research Database. Patients who experienced an unplanned hospitalization (index visit) were identified as index subjects and matched to a randomly selected reference visit within users of a specific category of high-risk medication. An unplanned hospitalization was defined as a hospital admission immediately after an emergency department visit. Discordant exposures to the high-risk medication during the case period (1–14 days before the visit) and the control period (366–379 days before the visit) were examined in both index and reference visits. Antipsychotics was associated with the highest risk of unplanned hospitalizations (adjusted OR: 1.54, 95% CI [1.37–1.73]), followed by NSAIDs (1.50, [1.44–1.56]), anticonvulsants (1.34, [1.10–1.64]), diuretics (1.24, [1.15–1.33]), BZD/Z-hypnotics (1.23, [1.16–1.31]), antidepressants (1.17, [1.05–1.31]) and antiplatelets (1.16, [1.07–1.26]). NSAIDs and narcotics were associated with the highest risks of unplanned hospitalizations with a length of stay ≥10 days. These medication categories should be targeted for clinical and policy interventions.

Prediction of Hospitalization due to Adverse Drug Reactions in Elderly Community-Dwelling Patients (The PADR-EC Score).

BackgroundAdverse drug reactions (ADRs) are the major cause of medication-related hospital admissions in older patients living in the community. This study aimed to develop and validate a score to predict ADR-related hospitalization in people aged ≥65 years.MethodsADR-related hospitalization and its risk factors were determined using a prospective, cross-sectional study in patients aged ≥65 years admitted to two hospitals. A predictive model was developed in the derivation cohort (n = 768) and the model was applied in the validation cohort (n = 240). ADR-related hospital admission was determined through expert consensus from comprehensive reviews of medical records and patient interviews. The causality and preventability of the ADR were assessed based on the Naranjo algorithm and modified Schumock and Thornton criteria, respectively.ResultsIn the derivation sample (mean [±SD] age, 80.1±7.7 years), 115 (15%) patients were admitted due to a definite or probable ADR; 92.2% of these admissions were deemed preventable. The number of antihypertensives was the strongest predictor of an ADR followed by presence of dementia, renal failure, drug changes in the preceding 3 months and use of anticholinergic medications; these variables were used to derive the ADR prediction score. The predictive ability of the score, assessed from calculation of the area under the receiver operator characteristic (ROC) curve, was 0.70 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.65–0.75). In the validation sample (mean [±SD] age, 79.6±7.6 years), 30 (12.5%) patients’ admissions were related to definite or probable ADRs; 80% of these admissions were deemed preventable. The area under the ROC curve in this sample was 0.67 (95% CI 0.56–0.78).ConclusionsThis study proposes a practical and simple tool to identify elderly patients who are at an increased risk of preventable ADR-related hospital admission. Further refinement and testing of this tool is necessary to implement the score in clinical practice.

Reductions in Medication-Related Hospitalizations in Older Adults with Medication Management by Hospital and Community Pharmacists: A Quasi-Experimental Study.

To evaluate the association between a system of medication management services provided by specially trained hospital and community pharmacists (Pharm2Pharm) and rates and costs of medication-related hospitalization in older adults. Quasi-experimental interrupted time series design comparing intervention and nonintervention hospitals using a mixed-effects analysis that modeled the intervention as a time-dependent variable. Sequential implementation of Pharm2Pharm at six general nonfederal acute care hospitals in Hawaii with more than 50 beds in 2013 and 2014. All five other such hospitals served as a contemporaneous comparison group. Adult inpatients who met criteria for being at risk for medication problems (N = 2,083), 62% of whom were aged 65 or older. A state-wide system of medication management services provided by specially trained hospital and community pharmacists serving high-risk individuals from hospitalization through transition to home and for up to 1 year after discharge. Medication-related hospitalization rate per 1,000 admissions of individuals aged 65 and older, adjusted for case mix; estimate of costs of hospitalizations and actual costs of pharmacist services. The predicted, case mix-adjusted medication-related hospitalization rate of individuals aged 65 and older was 36.5% lower in the Pharm2Pharm hospitals after implementation than in the nonintervention hospitals (P = .01). The estimated annualized cost of avoided admissions was $6.6 million. The annual cost of the pharmacist services for all Pharm2Pharm participants was $1.8 million. The Pharm2Pharm model was associated with an estimated 36% reduction in the medication-related hospitalization rate for older adults and a 2.6:1 return on investment, highlighting the value of pharmacists as drug therapy experts in geriatric care.

Hospitalizations Due to Adverse Drug Events in the Elderly-A Retrospective Register Study.

Adverse drug events (ADEs) are more likely to affect geriatric patients due to physiological changes occurring with aging. Even though this is an internationally recognized problem, similar research data in Finland is still lacking. The aim of this study was to determine the number of geriatric medication-related hospitalizations in the Finnish patient population and to discover the potential means of recognizing patients particularly at risk of ADEs. The study was conducted retrospectively from the 2014 emergency department patient records in Oulu University Hospital. A total number of 290 admissions were screened for ADEs, adverse drug reactions (ADRs) and drug-drug interactions (DDIs) by a multi-disciplinary research team. Customized Naranjo scale was used as a control method. All admissions were categorized into “probable,” “possible,” or “doubtful” by both assessment methods. In total, 23.1% of admissions were categorized as “probably” or “possibly” medication-related. Vertigo, falling, and fractures formed the largest group of ADEs. The most common ADEs were related to medicines from N class of the ATC-code system. Age, sex, residence, or specialty did not increase the risk for medication-related admission significantly (min p = 0.077). Polypharmacy was, however, found to increase the risk (OR 3.3; 95% CI, 1.5–6.9; p = 0.01). In conclusion, screening patients for specific demographics or symptoms would not significantly improve the recognition of ADEs. In addition, as ADE detection today is largely based on voluntary reporting systems and retrospective manual tracking of errors, it is evident that more effective methods for ADE detection are needed in the future.

Improving the effectiveness of drug safety alerts to increase adherence to the guideline for gastrointestinal prophylaxis

ObjectiveGastrointestinal bleedings are the most frequently occurring reason for medication-related hospital admissions, which are potentially preventable. We implemented a clinical decision support system that recommends to prescribe gastrointestinal prophylaxis in patients with an increased risk according to the Dutch guideline. Our primary objective was to determine whether the implementation resulted in improved compliance with this guideline for gastrointestinal prophylaxis. A secondary objective was to determine whether implementation resulted in a reduction of the number of drug safety alerts. Materials and methodsThis intervention study was performed at the Spaarne Gasthuis, a teaching hospital, using Epic as hospital information system. We selected prescriptions with an indication for gastrointestinal prophylaxis according to the guideline, in the three months before and after implementation of the clinical decision support in November 2014. We analyzed whether gastrointestinal prophylaxis was prescribed more frequently after implementation using the Pearson’s Chi-square test and the change in the number of drug safety alerts. ResultsBefore implementation in 84.0% of the included 2064 prescriptions gastrointestinal prophylaxis was co-prescribed. After implementation this percentage increased to 94.5% of the 2269 prescriptions (p<0.001). The number of drug safety alerts decreased by 78.2% from 980 to 217 alerts. ConclusionThe introduction of a clinical decision support system for gastrointestinal prophylaxis improved adherence to the Dutch guideline. This was most likely due to a reduction in the number of irrelevant drug safety alerts.

The extent of medication errors and adverse drug reactions throughout the patient journey in acute care in Australia.

To provide an estimate of the numbers of medication errors and adverse drug reactions that occur along a person's journey through their hospital stay in Australia. A search of databases and online resources was undertaken to identify published literature on medication safety in the acute care setting in Australia from 2008 to 2013. Data on the rates of adverse drug reactions and medication errors associated with hospitalization was extracted from the published studies. This evidence was synthesized with evidence from previous reviews of medication safety in the acute care setting in Australia conducted in 2002 and 2008. Findings from the Australian literature across the two previous reviews of medication safety and the present review indicate the proportion of all hospital admissions that are medication-related is between 2 and 3%. Studies assessing medication errors on admission to hospital suggest there may be an overall rate of two errors for every three patients at the time of admission to hospital. Large studies examining the rates of prescribing errors in major Australian teaching hospitals give insight into the rates of prescription error and suggest that prescription error rates of up to one error per patient occur in the hospital system. The best available evidence from more recent research suggests that errors (excluding errors of timing) occur in around 9% of medication administrations in hospital. At hospital discharge, errors in medication documentation in discharge summaries may occur at a rate of up to two errors per patient. Medication safety in the various stages of the patient journey through acute care in Australia continues to be a significant problem. However, the extent of medication-related problems in acute care needs to be interpreted within the context of increasingly complex health care. There are an estimated 230 000 medication-related hospital admissions occurring per year. This suggests an annual cost of medication-related admissions of AU$1.2 billion.

The impact of a medication review with follow-up service on hospital admissions in aged polypharmacy patients.

The aims were to assess the impact of a medication review with follow-up (MRF) service provided in community pharmacy to aged polypharmacy patients on the number of medication-related hospital admissions and to estimate the effect on hospital costs. This was a sub-analysis of a cluster randomized controlled trials carried out in 178 community pharmacies in Spain. Pharmacies in the intervention group (IG) provided a comprehensive medication review during 6months. Pharmacists in the comparison group (CG) delivered usual care. For the purposes of this sub-analysis, an expert panel of three internal medicine specialists screened the hospitalizations occurring during the main study, in order to identify medication-related hospitalizations. Inter-rater reliability was measured using Fleiss's kappa. Hospital costs were calculated using diagnosis related groups. One thousand four hundred and three patients were included in the main study and they had 83 hospitalizations. Forty-two hospitalizations (50.6%) were medicine-related, with a substantial level of agreement among the experts (kappa=0.65, 95% CI 0.52, 0.78, P<0.01). The number of medication-related hospitalizations was significantly lower in patients receiving MRF (IG 11, GC 31, P=0.042). The probability of being hospitalized was 3.7 times higher in the CG (odds ratio 3.7, 95% CI 1.2, 11.3, P=0.021). Costs for a medicine-related hospitalization were €6672. Medication-related hospitalization costs were lower for patients receiving MRF [IG: €94 (SD 917); CG: €301 (SD 2102); 95% CI 35.9, 378.0, P=0.018]. MRF provided by community pharmacists might be an effective strategy to balance the assurance of the benefit from medications and the avoidance of medication-related hospitalizations in aged patients using polypharmacy.

Development and Implementation of a Pharmacsit-Led Patient Education and Provider Communication Service for Medication-Related Angioedema and Anaphylaxis Requiring Hospitalization

Development and Implementation of a Pharmacsit-Led Patient Education and Provider Communication Service for Medication-Related Angioedema and Anaphylaxis Requiring Hospitalization

Medication Regimen Complexity and Number of Medications as Factors Associated With Unplanned Hospitalizations in Older People: A Population-based Cohort Study.

Background:Adverse drug events are a leading cause of hospitalization among older people. Up to half of all medication-related hospitalizations are potentially preventable. The objective of this study was to investigate and compare the association between medication regimen complexity and number of medications with unplanned hospitalizations over a 3-year period.Methods:Data were analyzed for 3,348 participants aged 60 years or older in Sweden. Regimen complexity was assessed using the 65-item Medication Regimen Complexity Index (MRCI) and number of medications was assessed as a continuous variable. Cox proportional hazard models were used to compute unadjusted and adjusted hazard ratios with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for associations between regimen complexity and number of medications with unplanned hospitalizations over a 3-year period. Receiver operating characteristics curves with corresponding areas under the curve were calculated for regimen complexity and number of medications in relation to unplanned hospitalizations. The population attributable fraction of unplanned hospitalizations was calculated for MRCI and number of medications.Results:In total, 1,125 participants (33.6%) had one or more unplanned hospitalizations. Regimen complexity (hazard ratio 1.22; 95% CI 1.14–1.34) and number of medications (hazard ratio 1.07; 95% CI 1.04–1.09) were both associated with unplanned hospitalizations and had similar sensitivity and specificity (area under the curve 0.641 for regimen complexity and area under the curve 0.644 for number of medications). The population attributable fraction was 14.08% (95% CI 9.62–18.33) for MRCI and 17.61% (95% CI 12.59–22.35) for number of medications.Conclusions:There was no evidence that using a complex tool to assess regimen complexity was better at predicting unplanned hospitalization than number of medications.

The Association Between Potentially Inappropriate Prescribing and Medication-Related Hospital Admissions in Older Patients: A Nested Case Control Study.

Medication-related problems can cause serious adverse drug events (ADEs) that may lead to hospitalization of the patient. There are multiple screening methods to detect and reduce potentially inappropriate medications (PIMs) and potential prescribing omissions (PPOs). Whether this will result in less medication-related hospitalizations is unknown. The study objective was to assess the risk of preventable medication-related hospital admissions associated with potentially inappropriate prescribing, using the Beers 2012 and the Screening Tool of Older Person's Prescriptions and the Screening Tool to Alert doctors to Right Treatment (STOPP & START) 2008 criteria. A nested case-control study was conducted with a subset of Dutch participants from the Hospital Admissions Related to Medication (HARM) study. Cases were defined as patients aged ≥65years with a potentially preventable medication-related hospital admission. For each case, one control was selected, matched for age and sex. The primary determinant was the presence of one or more PIMs according to the Beers 2012 and STOPP 2008 criteria. The secondary determinant was the presence of one or more PIMs and PPOs according to the STOPP & START 2008 criteria. The strength of the association between inappropriate prescribing and medication-related hospital admission was evaluated with multivariate logistic regression and expressed as odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). The prevalence of Beers 2012 criteria PIMs in the total cohort was 44.4%. The prevalence of STOPP & START 2008 criteria PIMs and PPOs were, respectively, 34.1 and 57.7%. STOPP 2008 criteria PIMs were associated with preventable medication-related hospital admissions [OR adjusted for number of drugs and comorbidities (ORadj) 2.30, 95% CI 1.30-4.07], whereas there was no association with Beers 2012 criteria PIMs (ORadj 1.49, 95% CI 0.90-2.47). STOPP PIMs and START PPOs together were also associated with preventable medication-related hospital admissions (ORadj 3.47, 95% CI 1.70-7.09). Our study shows that patients with potentially inappropriate prescribing detected with the STOPP & START 2008 criteria are at risk of preventable medication-related hospital admissions. The STOPP & START 2008 criteria can be used to identify older people at risk of medication-related problems.

Niche Markets: Filling Gaps with Expertise, Ingenuity.

Niche markets present opportunities for pharmacists to expand their presence and increase the demand for their services. These practitioners have clinical skills that they can use to improve medication management, reduce medication-related problems and hospitalizations, and enhance the quality of life for patients in specialty areas such as menopause management and women's health, hospice and palliative care, and pediatric long-term care.

Ability of older people with dementia or cognitive impairment to manage medicine regimens: a narrative review.

Impaired cognition has a significant impact on a person’s ability to manage their medicines. The aim of this paper is to provide a narrative review of contemporary literature on medicines management by people with dementia or cognitive impairment living in the community, methods for assessing their capacity to safely manage medicines, and strategies for supporting independent medicines management. Studies and reviews addressing medicines management by people with dementia or cognitive impairment published between 2003 and 2013 were identified via searches of Medline and other databases. The literature indicates that as cognitive impairment progresses, the ability to plan, organise, and execute medicine management tasks is impaired, leading to increased risk of unintentional non-adherence, medication errors, preventable medication-related hospital admissions and dependence on family carers or community nursing services to assist with medicines management. Impaired functional capacity may not be detected by health professionals in routine clinical encounters. Assessment of patients’ (or carers’) ability to safely manage medicines is not undertaken routinely, and when it is there is variability in the methods used. Self-report and informant report may be helpful, but can be unreliable or prone to bias. Measures of cognitive function are useful, but may lack sensitivity and specificity. Direct observation, using a structured, standardised performance-based tool, may help to determine whether a person is able to manage their medicines and identify barriers to adherence such as inability to open medicine packaging. A range of strategies have been used to support independent medicines management in people with cognitive impairment, but there is little high-quality research underpinning these strategies. Further studies are needed to develop and evaluate approaches to facilitate safe medicines management by older people with cognitive impairment and their carers.

Primary Care Medication Safety Surveillance with Integrated Primary and Secondary Care Electronic Health Records: A Cross-Sectional Study.

IntroductionThe extent of preventable medication-related hospital admissions and medication-related issues in primary care is significant enough to justify developing decision support systems for medication safety surveillance. The prerequisite for such systems is defining a relevant set of medication safety-related indicators and understanding the influence of both patient and general practice characteristics on medication prescribing and monitoring.ObjectiveThe aim of the study was to investigate the feasibility of linked primary and secondary care electronic health record data for surveillance of medication safety, examining not only prescribing but also monitoring, and associations with patient- and general practice-level characteristics.MethodsA cross-sectional study was conducted using linked records of patients served by one hospital and over 50 general practices in Salford, UK. Statistical analysis consisted of mixed-effects logistic models, relating prescribing safety indicators to potential determinants.ResultsThe overall prevalence (proportion of patients with at least one medication safety hazard) was 5.45 % for prescribing indicators and 7.65 % for monitoring indicators. Older patients and those on multiple medications were at higher risk of prescribing hazards, but at lower risk of missed monitoring. The odds of missed monitoring among all patients were 25 % less for males, 50 % less for patients in practices that provide general practitioner training, and threefold higher in practices serving the most deprived compared with the least deprived areas. Practices with more prescribing hazards did not tend to show more monitoring issues.ConclusionsSystematic collection, collation, and analysis of linked primary and secondary care records produce plausible and useful information about medication safety for a health system. Medication safety surveillance systems should pay close attention to patient age and polypharmacy with respect to both prescribing and monitoring failures; treat prescribing and monitoring as different statistical processes, rather than a combined measure of prescribing safety; and audit the socio-economic equity of missed monitoring.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s40264-015-0304-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Pharmaceuticals, pharmacists and profits

Editor, – In his article, ‘Pharmaceuticals, pharmacists and profits: a health policy perspective’ (Aust Prescr 2014;37:148-9), Professor Philip Clarke highlights the importance of the price disclosure policy in reducing government spending on pharmaceuticals. However, Professor Clarke blatantly disregards the important role that community pharmacists play by comparing pharmacies to ‘firms that sell computers or mobile phones’. He asks why community pharmacy should have the support of taxpayer funds in order to remain viable while electronics stores do not. What a ridiculous comparison! Community pharmacies are staffed by highly trained health professionals and are essential in providing timely access to prescription medicines. This is an essential service that must remain a viable business for those involved. In addition to this, community pharmacists also provide a range of important services including counselling on the use of medicines, drug information and advice, primary health care, medication management services and delivery of medicines to the elderly and disabled. These services are generally provided free of charge and help to reduce medication-related hospital admissions which cost $1.2 billion annually. Australian pharmacists are well attuned to the need to ensure that the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS) remains sustainable, especially in the context of our ageing population. They are calling for increased opportunities to provide funded health care and medication management services. Pharmacists remain one of the most accessible health professionals with anyone being able to walk into a pharmacy (often open long hours) and obtain advice within 10 minutes. Community pharmacies are ideally placed to provide an expanded range of services where current gaps exist.

P442: Association between potentially inappropriate medication use and medication-related hospital admissions in the elderly: medication screening with Beers versus STOPP&START criteria

P442: Association between potentially inappropriate medication use and medication-related hospital admissions in the elderly: medication screening with Beers versus STOPP&START criteria

Implementation of medication reviews in community pharmacies and their effect on potentially inappropriate drug use in elderly patients

In 2008 recommendations were launched to prevent medication-related hospital admissions in the Netherlands. Elderly patients using several drugs on a chronic basis were among the target group. Pharmacy-led medication reviews (MRs) were identified as having potential for improving patient safety. This observational study evaluated the implementation success rate of performing all five steps of a complete MR for patients and changes in the presence of nine issues of potentially inappropriate medication (PIM) use. This change was compared between patients with a complete MR (intervention group, IG) and a reference group (RG) who attended the same pharmacy; all patients were eligible for MR, but only selected patients formed the IG. Dutch community pharmacy. After appropriate training, the rate of IG with complete MRs was measured by pharmacists registering the various MR steps in the MR tool. Patients were eligible for a MR if aged ≥ 65 years with ≥ 5 drugs being used chronically. The success rate of implementing MRs with five steps completed; the presence of nine PIMs for both study groups. In pharmacies with specifically trained pharmacists, 63 % of selected patients received a complete MR. This was 12 % higher than in pharmacies without trained pharmacists. PIMs reported at study start declined in the IG and at study end had decreased by an average of 19 % (with a range between 34 and 100 % per PIM); this decrease did not significantly differ from the RG. Additional efforts are needed to improve the implementation of pharmacist-led MRs in order to realize its full potential in general practice, and for a substantial decrease of PIMs to occur in susceptible patients. These efforts should focus on training courses and additional support using computerized systems to share information with GPs and to register MR activities, together with sufficient financial reimbursement.

Preventing hospital admissions by reviewing medication (PHARM) in primary care: an open controlled study in an elderly population

Limited and conflicting evidence exists on the effect of a multicomponent pharmaceutical care intervention (i.e. medication review, involving collaboration between general practitioners (GPs), pharmacists and patients) on medication-related hospitalizations, survival, adverse drug events (ADEs) and quality of life. We aimed to investigate the effect of a multicomponent pharmaceutical care intervention on these outcomes. An open controlled multicentre study was conducted within primary care settings. Patients with a high risk on medication-related hospitalizations based on old age, use of five or more medicines, non-adherence and type of medication used were included. The intervention consisted of a patient interview, a review of the pharmacotherapy and the execution and follow-up evaluation of a pharmaceutical care plan. The patient's own pharmacist and GP carried out the intervention. The control group received usual care and was cared for by a GP other than the intervention GP. The primary outcome of the study was the frequency of hospital admissions related to medication within the study period of 12 months for each patient. Secondary outcomes were survival, quality of life and ADEs. 364 intervention and 310 control patients were included. Less medication-related hospital admissions were found in the intervention group (n = 6; 1·6%) than in the control group (n = 10; 3·2%) but the overall effect was not statistically significant (hazard ratio (HR) 0·50, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0·12-1·59). The secondary outcomes were not statistically significantly different either. The study was underpowered, which may explain the negative results. A post hoc analysis showed that the effect of the intervention was statistically significant for patients with five diseases or more: five diseases, HR 0·28 (95% bootstrap CI: 0·056-0·73) and eight diseases, HR 0·11 (95% CI: 0·013-0·34). A multicomponent pharmaceutical care intervention does not prevent medication-related hospital admissions. Whether this is true for such interventions in general is unknown, because the PHARM study was underpowered. The intervention may significantly reduce medication-related hospitalizations in patients with five or more comorbidities, but this is only based on a post hoc analysis and thus needs confirmation in large controlled trials.

Medication-Related Emergency Department Visits and Hospital Admissions in Pediatric Patients: A Qualitative Systematic Review

To review and describe the current literature pertaining to the incidence, classification, severity, preventability, and impact of medication-related emergency department (ED) and hospital admissions in pediatric patients. A systematic search of PubMED, Embase, and Web of Science was performed using the following terms: drug toxicity, adverse drug event, medication error, emergency department, ambulatory care, and outpatient clinic. Additional articles were identified by a manual search of cited references. English language, full-reports of pediatric (≤18 years) patients that required an ED visit or hospital admission secondary to an adverse drug event (ADE) were included. We included 11 studies that reported medication-related ED visit or hospital admission in pediatric patients. Incidence of medication-related ED visits and hospital admissions ranged from 0.5%-3.3% and 0.16%-4.3%, respectively, of which 20.3%-66.7% were deemed preventable. Among ED visits, 5.1%-22.1% of patients were admitted to hospital, with a length of stay of 24-72 hours. The majority of ADEs were deemed moderate in severity. Types of ADEs included adverse drug reactions, allergic reactions, overdose, medication use with no indication, wrong drug prescribed, and patient not receiving a drug for an indication. Common causative agents included respiratory drugs, antimicrobials, central nervous system drugs, analgesics, hormones, cardiovascular drugs, and vaccines. Medication-related ED visits and hospital admissions are common in pediatric patients, many of which are preventable. These ADEs result in significant healthcare utilization.

Counseling to enhance medication adherence

Poor medication adherence is a serious problem, with a reported three out of four Americans not taking their medications as directed. Nonadherence results in numerous medication-related hospitalizations and billions in health care–related costs annually. Familiarity with and incorporation of educational methods aimed at reducing medication nonadherence are essential.

New in FY 2013: Perform to increase payments

New CMS payment policies present a golden opportunity for pharmacists in health systems looking to justify expanded roles.