Anatomy For Medical Students Research Articles

An Interactive Approach to Learning 3D Anatomy for Medical Students

An Interactive Approach to Learning 3D Anatomy for Medical Students

A pilot study of robotic surgery case videos for first-year medical student anatomy.

There has been a recent shift in medical student anatomy education with greater incorporation of virtual resources. Multiple approaches to virtual anatomy resources have been described, but few involve video or images from surgical procedures. In this pilot study, a series of surgical case videos was created using robotic surgery video footage for a first-year medical student anatomy course. Five operations were included that covered thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic anatomy. Students were surveyed at the end of the course regarding their experience with the videos and their perceptions towards a surgical career. Overall, participants agreed that the videos were an effective learning tool, were useful regardless of career interest, and that in the future it would be useful to incorporate additional surgical case videos. Respondents highlighted the importance of audio narration with future videos and provided suggestions for future operations that they would like to see included. In summary, this pilot study describes the creation and implementation of a surgical video anatomy curriculum and student survey results suggest this may be an effective approach to video-based anatomy education for further curricular development.

Improving Medical Student Anatomy Knowledge and Confidence for the Breast Surgical Oncology Rotation.

The anatomy curriculum has undergone considerable reductions in class time, resulting in decreased student anatomical knowledge retention and confidence during their surgical rotations. To counter this deficit in anatomy knowledge, a clinical anatomy mentorship program (CAMP) was developed by fourth-year medical student leaders and staff mentors in a near-peer teaching fashion prior to the surgical clerkship. This study analyzed the impact this program had on third-year medical students (MS3s) self-assessed anatomical knowledge and confidence in the operating room on the Breast Surgical Oncology rotation after this near-peer program. A single-center prospective survey study was performed at an academic medical center. Pre- and post-program surveys were administered to all students who participated in the CAMP and rotated on the breast surgical oncology (BSO) service during the surgery clerkship rotation. A control group of individuals who did not rotate on the CAMP was established, and this group was administered a retrospective survey. A 5-point Likert scale was used to assess surgical anatomy knowledge, confidence in the operating room, and comfort in assisting in the operating room. Control group versus post-CAMP intervention group and pre- versus post-CAMP intervention groups survey results were compared using the Student's t-test with a p-value of <0.05 statistically significant. All CAMP students rated their surgical anatomy knowledge (p < 0.01), confidence in the operating room (p < 0.01), and comfort in assisting in the operating room (p < 0.01) as greater than those who did not participate in the program. Additionally, the program improved the ability of third-year medical students to prepare for operating room cases going into their third-year breast surgical oncology clerkship (p < 0.03). This near-peer surgical education model appears to be an effective way to prepare third-year medical students for the breast surgical oncology rotation during the surgery clerkship by improving anatomic knowledge and student confidence. The program can serve as a template for medical students, surgical clerkship directors, and other faculty interested in efficiently expanding surgical anatomy at their institution.

Study on Key Technologies of Virtual Interactive Surgical Simulation for 3D Reconstruction of Medical Images.

Medical computed tomography (CT), nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and other imaging facility produce a large amount of medical image data which has great diagnosis value. Traditional three-dimensional reconstruction of medical images has high requirements for graphics acceleration hardware and the processing speed. In this study, VxWorks embedded real-time process feature is used for CT or MRI DICOM data to real restoration and establishment of virtual three-dimensional model for realizing volume reconstruction, maximum density projection, multiplane reconstruction, dynamic interactive cutting of any surface, dynamic display of three-dimensional model and two-dimensional sectional image, surgical path planning and interactive surgical simulation, and determine the best surgical scheme. The practical application shows that the virtual simulation environment supports the seamless transplantation of code, function debugging, and interaction and solves the issue of high requirements for hardware. It can meet the needs of scientific research and teaching for clinicians and medical imaging workers and can be widely used in the training of virtual surgical anatomy for medical students.

Evaluation of the effectiveness of online education in anatomy for medical students during the COVID-19 pandemic

BackgroundIn the field of medicine, anatomy is considered one of the most important subjects to be studied in college, even for clinicians. Learning from cadaveric specimens is considered an important part of the medical experience. The current study consisted of a questionnaire given to Year 1 and Year 2 medical students. This study was performed to assess using a questionnaire whether students were capable of continuing studying Anatomy during the COVID-19 period. MethodsThe study consisted of 102 students in Years 1 and 2 of the Faculty of Medicine of Alexandria University in Egypt. It included Year 1 Students (mean age 18.6 ± 1.1 years old; 21 males and 36 females), and Year 2 Students (mean age 20.4 ± 1.0 years old; 22 males and 23 females).The survey consisted of three sections. The first section consisted of four questions on the demographic data of the participating students. The second section consisted of 10 questions concerning their satisfaction with the tutorials and presented by the Department of Anatomy. Answers to the questionnaire were in the form of a Likert scale (with 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). ResultsThe students disagreed with the fact that they found difficulty in time management, represented by a mean score of 2.23 ± 1.14. That is to say, the students were capable of managing their time well. Here also, the difference between Year 1 and Year 2 students was significant (p = 0.028), which is an indicator that Year 2 students found more difficulty in time management. Most students agreed (mean score of 3.48 ± 1.07) that they were able to handle online learning and the transition between the systems was acceptable. Students were also convinced and agreed that the methods used by the college limited the spread of COVID-19 (mean score of 3.81 ± 1.04). Allowing assignments and projects increased the interaction between the students and the staff members. ConclusionsEducation must continue during the COVID-19 period, based on their responses and opinions in the questionnaire. Online learning proved to be effective in teaching medical students during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Importance of Cadaveric Dissection in Learning Anatomy For Medical Students: A Review

Cadaveric dissection has been used for centuries to explore anatomy. The role of dissection in modern medical curricula has been a topic of intense debate. Anatomical education has been undergoing reforms in line with the demands of medical profession. Despite the rise of modern technology and evolved teaching methods, dissection continues to remain a cornerstone of the anatomy curriculum. Dissection helps to build discipline independent skills which are essential requirements of modern healthcare setup. Its utility is also reflected in the perception of students who believe that dissection provides them a foundation to develop clinical skills. Objections to the use of cadavers had led to other alternatives including virtual dissection of computer models. The current state of dissection in anatomy is deteriorating. Present study aims to assess the importance of traditional method like cadaveric dissection in teaching and learning anatomy at the present time when medical schools are inclining towards integrated and clinical application of learning methods.

Anatomy education for medical students in the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland in 2019: A 20-year follow-up.

Anatomical education in the United Kingdom (UK) and Ireland has long been under scrutiny, especially since the reforms triggered in 1993 by the General Medical Council's "Tomorrow's Doctors." The aim of the current study was to investigate the state of medical student anatomy education in the UK and Ireland in 2019. In all, 39 medical schools completed the survey (100% response rate) and trained 10,093medical students per year cohort. The teachers comprised 760 individuals, of these 143 were employed on full-time teaching contracts and 103 were employed on education and research contracts. Since a previous survey in 1999, the number of part-time staff has increased by 300%, including a significant increase in the number of anatomy demonstrators. In 2019, anatomy was predominantly taught to medical students in either a system-based or hybrid curriculum. In all, 34 medical schools (87%) used human cadavers to teach anatomy, with a total of 1,363 donors being used per annum. Gross anatomy teaching was integrated with medical imaging in 95% of medical schools, embryology in 81%, living anatomy in 78%, neuroanatomy in 73%, and histology in 68.3%. Throughout their five years of study, medical students are allocated on average 85h of taught time for gross anatomy, 24h for neuroanatomy, 24h for histology, 11h for living anatomy, and 10 for embryology. In the past 20 years, there has been an average loss of 39h dedicated to gross anatomy teaching and a reduction in time dedicated to all other anatomy sub-disciplines.

Donation of body for anatomical dissection in Sri Lanka: a review

Anatomy remains central for Medical Education which forms the basis of efficient and safe medical practice. Dissection of a cadaver is deliberated as an essential and valuable tool in teaching macroscopic anatomy for medical students. Apart from gaining knowledge and skills, the anatomical dissection aids in cultivating humanistic values, behaviors, and attitudes which are essential assets for an empathetic future medical practitioner. This manuscript highlights the dynamic history of acquiring human bodies for anatomical dissection, with a particular emphasis on Sri Lanka. Knowledge on the source of cadavers, and the manner by which they have been obtained, is fundamental for medical students to realize the ethical and legal challenges associated with procurement of cadavers. This knowledge will help to further students’ understanding of the evolving mindset of society, both past and present, regarding anatomical dissection and voluntary body donation. Through the study of the history of procuring cadavers, students are better positioned to appreciate the determination, generosity, and altruism of donors who have bequeathed their bodies for the educational needs of others. This, in turn, enables the students to consider the cadaver as their teacher, first patient or at best body of a fellow human being; not only to ensure that the body is treated in an ethically acceptable manner, but also to provide an empathetic foundation in students to provide the utmost care to their patients with kindness and due respect in their future medical practice. Thus the willed body donation plays a significant role in producing not only a competent but also a compassionate medical practitioner. In this manuscript, the body donation practices of Sri Lanka are reviewed along with the Taiwanese-originated silent mentor programme.

A pragmatic approach to effective anatomy teaching and learning to medical students: a ten-year experience using evidence-based principles.

This article was migrated. The article was marked as recommended. Teaching and learning of anatomy for medical students have been extensively studied. However, we believe that a 'gold-standard' of an anatomy teaching and learning model is difficult to establish as every educational institution faces unique. For the past ten years at the University of Notre Dame Australia, School of Medicine Sydney, the anatomy faculty has implemented evidence-based teaching strategies adopted from medical schools around the world and supported by timely student feedback to deliver cost-effective and sustainable anatomy learning. Student evaluations of this program have been positive and associated with improved summative anatomy results. This article describes ten principles pursued by our faculty, which we hope will help others in restructuring or enhancing their anatomy teaching and learning program.

Program Directors’ Opinions About Otolaryngology Resident Teaching Medical School Anatomy

PurposeTo evaluate whether otolaryngology residency program directors (PDs) provide residents to teach pre-clinical medical students anatomy and to outline their perceptions of this practice.MethodsAn anonymous online survey was sent to active U.S. otolaryngology residency PDs in 2019, assessing each program’s involvement in teaching medical student anatomy.ResultsForty-five of 121 (37.1%) of surveyed otolaryngology PDs responded. Sixteen of the 44 (36.4%) residency programs that were associated with a medical school provided residents to teach anatomy (“Teaching Programs”). The 29 (64.4%) remaining programs did not provide residents (“Non-teaching Programs”). No significant differences were found between Teaching and Non-teaching Programs (P<0.05) for the size of the program, the presence of fellowships, the size of medical school, whether residents had won teaching awards, or the number of otolaryngology residency applicants from that school. In general, all PDs responded positively about residents teaching medical school anatomy. Non-teaching Programs primarily cited not being approached by the medical school as a reason for not providing residents to teach.ConclusionThe majority of respondent otolaryngology PDs have a positive view of residents teaching medical students but few do it. Otolaryngology departments will need to take the lead on developing opportunities to put students and residents together for anatomy education.

Human Cadaver Preservation Techniques During Prolonged Dissection on Downdraft Tables in a Gross Anatomy Laboratory

The purpose of this study is to determine the best method(s) for maintaining the integrity of cadavers during prolonged dissections on downdraft tables in the medical student anatomy course. Downdraft tables have become increasingly common in gross anatomy laboratories and are one of the most effective ways to minimize exposure to formaldehyde. Unfortunately, the improved ventilation of the cadaver during prolonged dissection increases the likelihood of the cadaver drying out. This is particularly problematic in the human gross anatomy course because the dry cadaveric tissue makes it more difficult to identify anatomical structures. Following full body dissection on downdraft tables, four cadaveric forearms were maintained in four different manners: uncovered (control), wrapped in a cloth, enclosed in a plastic bag, and wrapped in a cloth as well as enclosed in a plastic bag. Three weeks later, faculty and medical students who were blind to the preservation methods evaluated the quality of the four cadaver forearms using a Likert‐scale cadaver integrity assessment (CIA) developed by the researchers. The quality of three non‐control forearms was rated as significantly higher for all measures of the CIA than the control forearms (P &lt; 0.05). There was insufficient evidence to conclude that there was any difference in quality between the three non‐control forearms in all but two measures of the CIA (P &gt; 0.05). We therefore conclude that leaving the cadavers on downdraft tables for only a few weeks allows the tissue to dry out, leading to cadavers with poorly preserved anatomy. The drying out process can be mitigated in part by wrapping the limbs of the cadaver in a cloth, a bag, or both between uses. This would be especially beneficial during gross anatomy courses so that students could learn human anatomy from a cadaver with well‐preserved anatomical structures.

Fresh‐frozen cadaveric dissection for medical students using specimens from surgical CME workshops

IntroductionMany medical schools have reduced, modified, or eliminated cadaveric dissection from their curricula. While the digital anatomy paradigm shift allows educators to reinforce concepts in an integrated, longitudinal manner, some students, especially those pursuing surgical specialties, remain interested in cadaver exposure. These students often practice manual dexterity by suturing on poultry and bovine parts, despite its limited ability to simulate human skin and connective tissues. Fresh‐frozen cadaver represents the highest quality specimen for appreciating anatomy and performing dissection. Unfortunately, student access is often prohibited by cost and lack of embalming limits prolonged use.AimWe sought to augment second‐year medical student anatomy knowledge and teach fundamental surgical principles through an elective experience using fresh‐frozen human cadaver.MethodsSurgeons attend continued medical education (CME) workshops with fresh‐frozen specimens to learn advanced operative approaches. Specimens are typically discarded afterwards. Our school’s surgery interest group coordinated with faculty to create a two‐day session focused on head and neck dissection and suturing with fresh‐frozen cadavers leftover from a temporomandibular joint surgery CME workshop. This is a pilot study of an extracurricular supplement at our medical school and was not considered for IRB review.ResultsThis session increased the educational value of donated human specimens. Students highly regarded the event for reinforcing challenging aspects of regional head and neck anatomy. They gained a higher appreciation for tissue planes than afforded by traditional formalin‐preserved cadaver. Dissection and suturing was comparable to what students can expect to encounter in the operating room. All twelve participating students advocated for increasing the size and frequency of these sessions. Formal data collection instruments were not utilized because this was a qualitative pilot experience.ConclusionsFresh‐frozen cadaver can be re‐used by students after surgical workshops for dissection and suturing to ethically gain the most educational value out of donated human specimens. These elective sessions can be dispersed throughout an integrated preclinical curriculum, each focused on a different anatomic region. The tactile experience of working with fresh‐frozen specimens is superior to formalin‐preserved tissues and enhances the education of students interested in the surgical profession.

A Concealed "Natural Orifice": Umbilicus Anatomy for Minimally Invasive Surgery.

A recent development in minimally invasive surgery (MIS) is single-port surgery, where a single large multiport trocar is placed in the umbilicus. All medical schools require that students complete an anatomy course as part of the medical curriculum. However, there is limited instruction regarding the detailed parts of the "umbilicus." In several famous anatomy atlases, the umbilicus is not dissected at all and is merely represented as a button. Until now, the true nature of the umbilicus has not been anatomically demonstrated. Five cadavers were obtained from the Osaka Medical College medical student anatomy class. The umbilicus was dissected in the anatomy laboratory, to demonstrate all the layers. A detailed dissection was performed, focusing on the exact center of the umbilicus, in order to ascertain whether there exists a "natural orifice" or a fascial defect. In all cadavers, a small defect of fascia was identified just below the center of the umbilicus. Yellow fatty tissue was present just below the skin in the exact center of the umbilicus. A probe placed exactly in the middle of this defect passes easily through into the abdominal cavity. With the widespread use of MIS, umbilical incision is commonly used to reduce pain and improve cosmetic results. This study consistently revealed a natural defect of fascia in the center of the umbilicus. Therefore, the umbilicus can be called a concealed "natural orifice." It is important to recognize and utilize this defect effectively to minimize unnecessary tissue trauma during MIS.

The Effect of Peer Assisted Learning on Medical Students’ Learning in a Limbs Anatomy Course

Introduction: Peer assisted learning (PAL) is the expansion of knowledge and abilities through active assistance and guidance among groups of people who are not trained teachers, but still assist and support one another’s learning. The aim of this study was evaluation of PAL in teaching skills and learning limb anatomy for medical students. Methods: In this quasi-experimental study, students entering Yasuj University of Medical Sciences (YUMS) in academic year 2012-13 were allocated to two equal groups of 28 participants, with PAL as the intervention group and conventional teaching methods as the comparison group at the beginning of the fourth week of the course. The course content for the PAL group was divided into seven roughly equal parts, the duties of students were determined and the time table was the same for two groups. Formative exams from each topic and summative exams about upper and lower limb anatomy were given. Abilities and skills of peer teachers were assessed by a researcher-made questionnaire through peer assessment. Data was analyzed using a paired t-test. Results: The mean scores of the PAL intervention group showed a significant statistical increase on seven out of ninth formative exams in relation to the comparison group (P<0.05). The mean differences (confidence interval) of the nine formative exams were (-.25, -1.98, 1.48), (-.59, -1.66, 1.43), (-1.75, -3.46, -.04), (-1.99, -3.14, -.86), (-1.61, -1.98, -1.48), (-2.04, -3.66, -.43), (-1.75, -3.46, -.039), (-1.89, -3.14, -.93) and (-1.62, -2.84, -.41), respectively. Scores on both summative exams in the PAL group indicated statistically significant differences compared to those of the comparison group (P<0.05). Mean differences and CI of multiple choice, naming pictures and short answer questions of the midterm exam were (-1.46, -2.52, -.4), (-1.52, -2.2, -.01) and (-1.1, -2.57, -.42), respectively, and for the final exam they were (-1.21, -2.59, -.4), (-1.68, -2.65, -.47) and (-1.09, -2.2, -.01), respectively. Descriptive statistics showed that the abilities and skills of peer teachers in gradually improved in the majority of areas improved. Conclusion: The mean scores of PAL group were higher than those of the comparison group. Since learning in this method occurs through debate and discussion and acquisition of skills and communication grew in students, it could be an accountable approach.

Integrating ultrasonography into the medical student anatomy curriculum (536.13)

Integrating Ultrasonography into the Medical Student Anatomy Curriculum Shannon Kim, MD1, Craig Goodmurphy, PhD1, Jamie Cline , AAS 1Department of Anatomy and Pathology. Eastern Virginia Medical School (EVMS), Norfolk, VA INTRODUCTION Ultrasonography delivers rapid, non‐invasive, real‐time visualization of internal anatomy/pathology. There is a growing need for more exposure in undergraduate medical education as it becomes a common thread across medical specialties. The M1 Anatomy course is utilized as a platform for early ultrasound (US) exposure only at a small number of institutions [1].OBJECTIVES To develop, implement, and assess the integration of US curriculum in M1 Anatomy.METHODS In 2012, EVMS obtained Institutional Review Board approval to initiate a vertically integrated US curriculum using the M1 Anatomy course as the initial platform for early US exposure. A combination of didactics, proctored hands‐on sessions, dedicated lab rotations, and usage of standardized patients and gelatin phantom trainers were utilized to teach six regionally‐based modules. Assessment was made with a pre‐ and post‐course test.RESULTS 146 students took the M1 Anatomy course. Average pre‐ and post‐course test scores were 27.19% and 67.8% respectively.CONCLUSIONS Students showed improvement in image recognition and acquisition, knowledge of US anatomy, and basic US machine functionality as noted in their post‐test scores. Using the M1 Anatomy course created logistical obstacles to be overcome: an already overloaded anatomy curriculum, faculty training, cost, and finding time to provide meaningful and repetitive learning opportunities for the students.REFERENCE 1.Afonso, N., Amponsah, D., et al. Adding New Tools to the Black Bag—Introduction of Ultrasound into the Physical Diagnosis Course. J Gen Intern Med. 2010 November; 25(11): 1248‐1252.

Ultrasound Exposure During Gross Anatomy

BackgroundAs medical schools seek to standardize ultrasound training and incorporate clinical correlations into the basic science years, we proposed that ultrasonography should have a greater role in the anatomy curriculum. ObjectivesTo describe the introduction of ultrasound into the curriculum of a first-year medical student anatomy course and evaluate the utility of this introduction. MethodsFirst-year medical students attended two ultrasound lectures and three small-group hands-on sessions that focused on selected aspects of musculoskeletal, thoracic, abdominal, and neck anatomy. Pre and post surveys were administered to assess student perception of their ability to obtain and interpret ultrasound images and the utility of ultrasound in the anatomy course. Understanding of basic ultrasound techniques and imaging was tested in the practical examinations. ResultsOf the 269 first-year medical students who completed the course, 144 students completed both surveys entirely, with a response rate of 53%. Students' interest and self-perceived experience, comfort, and confidence in ultrasound skills significantly increased (p < 0.001) as a result of this early introduction to ultrasonography. Objective evidence, provided by practical examination scores on ultrasound images, is consistent with this self-perceived confidence reported by students. ConclusionsUltrasound can be effectively incorporated into an anatomy course for first-year medical students by utilizing didactics and hands-on exposure. Medical students found the addition of ultrasound training to be valuable, not only in enhancing their understanding of anatomy, but also in increasing their interest and experience in ultrasound imaging.

The role of clinical imaging tutorials in anatomy education

Radiology imaging aids anatomy learning, and computer modules offer flexibility; however, few studies evaluate the impact of radiology tutorials on anatomy knowledge. We evaluated the impact of imaging tutorials on medical student anatomy learning through objective repeated measures. Axial and appendicular regions were used to determine if radiologic tutorials impact student learning and if learning depends on structural region. Various radiologic image types, structural labeling, and clinical correlations were included within each tutorial. The control group (n=18) received basic anatomy education, while the intervention groups (n=16) received, additionally, the thoracic or lower limb tutorial. The mean differences in assessment scores were calculated between intervention and control groups. Tutorial access positively impacted overall anatomy knowledge (+11.92% thorax; +7.26% lower limb). The most significant impact of these tutorials on learning was in structure identification of radiologic images (+32.95% thorax; +20.42% lower limb). Tutorial users improved their knowledge in novel anatomy concepts within the thoracic region (+9.82% change), but not in the lower limb, suggesting a greater positive impact of these tutorials in axial anatomy education. This study provides evidence that clinical imaging tutorials are a viable adjunct in enhancing anatomy education.Grant Funding Source: None

Surgeons as medical school educators: An untapped resource

Despite extensive experience teaching residents, surgeons are an untapped resource for educating medical students. We hypothesized that by involving surgeons as teachers earlier in the medical school curriculum, medical students' interest in surgery will increase and their opinions of surgeons will improve. Five programs designed to involve surgeons as educators in the medical school curriculum were implemented. The first program, started in 2008, introduced surgical faculty into the first-year medical student anatomy dissection laboratories. Other programs initiated in 2008 included: Surgical Clinical Correlates in Anatomy, which involved faculty teaching through cadaver surgery; Clinical Pathologic Conferences in Anatomy, a surgeon-led conference based on clinical cases; and a women's faculty-student mentorship program. Table Rounds, a surgeon-led anatomy review that used clinical scenarios to quiz students was begun in 2009. All five programs were successfully integrated into the medical school curriculum. While student opinion of surgeons as educators improved, there were no significant changes in student interest in surgery as a career nor change in performance on written examinations over the Anatomy content covered by the surgeons. Surgical faculty and trainees can be integrated into the medical school curriculum. Involving surgeons as educators earlier in the medical school curriculum may have longer term effects than could be observed in this study. At a minimum, the experience improved student opinion of surgeons as educators.

Effectiveness of a shortened, clinically engaged anatomy course for physician assistant students

There is little consensus among programs that train physician assistants (PAs) regarding how much time should be devoted to the study of anatomy, what should be included, or how it should be taught. Similar concerns led us to redesign anatomy for medical students and introduce clinically engaged anatomy, an approach designed in collaboration with clinical faculty. This approach presents anatomy entirely within the context of common clinical cases. This report examines whether clinically engaged anatomy could be adapted to the PA program, where students cover the basic sciences in half the time as medical students. We offered a modified version of clinically engaged anatomy to PA students in which time spent in self-directed learning activities was reduced relative to medical students. We compared their scores on an examination of long-term recall to students who took the previous course. Two classes who took clinically engaged anatomy, scored the same or significantly higher on every portion of the examination (P < 0.05). Students expressed high satisfaction with the course (Likert scale, 4.3-4.8/5 points). Compared to medical students who took clinically engaged anatomy, the data suggest that the tradeoff for reducing the time spent in self-directed learning was reduced skills in applying structure-function relationships and spatial reasoning to clinical problems. The data suggest clinically engaged anatomy can be effective in various educational settings, and can be readily adapted to clinical programs that vary in the depth that anatomy is covered. Nonetheless, careful assessments are needed to determine if the necessary tradeoffs are consistent with the goals of the profession.

Human morphology. An integrated course in the subdisciplines of anatomy for medical students.

Human morphology. An integrated course in the subdisciplines of anatomy for medical students.