Medical School Leadership Research Articles

Rapid Mobilization of Medical Students to Provide Health Care Workers With Emergency Childcare During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

In March 2020, the novel coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic spread rapidly within the United States and began overwhelming the health care system. To conserve personal protective equipment, reduce the spread of the virus, and keep student learners safe, leaders of medical schools across the country made the difficult decision to suspend in-person clinical experiences. As medical students were sent home and hospital systems ramped up their response to the virus, many essential health care workers (HCWs) faced an immediate challenge. As "nonessential" services such as schools and daycare centers abruptly closed, HCWs serving on the frontlines in inpatient settings needed a way to both fight the pandemic and care for their children. Medical students at Oregon Health & Science University were able to rapidly OR organize to provide childcare for essential HCWs. For roughly 8 weeks following the state of emergency (March 13 through May 15, 2020), students used Twitter and emerging technology to match families in need of childcare with a trainee volunteer. By May 15th, the service had successfully fulfilled 181 of the 202 requests for childcare (90%) over the course of 8 weeks. Of the 181 completed childcare requests, 172 (95%) were fulfilled by an individual (1:1 volunteer-to-household pairing), and 9 (5%) were fulfilled by 2 or more volunteers. The trainees who provided childcare will apply the skills learned (e.g., clear communication, grassroots organizing, triaging, leveraging new technology) to patient care. Broader applications for this system include organizing volunteers to conduct contract tracing or to provide public health information in languages other than English. Future research includes examining the effect of the service on the productivity, morale, and mental health of both those who provided and received childcare.

A SWOT analysis of Italian medical curricular adaptations to the COVID-19 pandemic: A nationwide survey of medical school leaders

Background There is a growing literature on how medical education adapts to the COVID-19 pandemic. However, there is a need to examine the facilitators and barriers of these adaptations. This study explores the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) of how Italian medical schools adapted their curricula to the COVID −19 pandemic. Methods The authors conducted an online survey of directors of medical curricula in Italy. Free-text responses to open-ended questions about curricular adaptations and reflections on these adaptations were analysed using qualitative thematic analysis. Results Twenty out of 60 Italian medical school directors completed the survey. Strengths identified were rapid responses and a spirit of cooperation. Weaknesses included dependency on clinical facilities, teachers’ limited skills to use technology, and lack of mental health support for staff. Opportunities highlighted were clear government rules, new ways of teaching and a renewed focus on underrepresented topics. Threats expressed included impaired relationships, difficulties related to online assessment, lack of IT access, and legal and insurance issues. Conclusions This study, in documenting the curricular adaptations of Italian medical schools during an active global pandemic, and recording the perspectives of medical education leaders, offers important lessons for the future.

Traversing the American Dream in Medical School – The FGLI Experience

First-generation, low-income (FGLI) medical students are the first in their family to obtain a four-year college degree and to pursue medical education. Unfortunately, these students lack the social capital, financial resources and knowledge of the hidden curriculum of medical school possessed by their non-FGLI peers. Additionally, the intersectionality of SES, race, and gender, with FGLI status contributes to poorer wellbeing, lower self-care, and lower perceptions of support. FGLI students often come from more interdependent, working-class cultural backgrounds than their independent minded peers, which creates a cultural mismatch with the traditional medical school structure. In 2017, the AAMC began to assess first-in-family status within the medical school admissions application, an important consideration for a holistic, diversity-oriented approach to shape the medical student body. It is crucial that each medical school continue to build infrastructure which helps FGLI students flourish during the medical school journey. Underrepresented students also face differences in the type and quality of mentorship they receive, which translates to differences in student preparedness to pursue competitive specialties. The inequalities that FGLI students face have been exacerbated by fewer face-to-face interactions and clinical opportunities in the setting of a more virtual learning environment. Student-led efforts at the University of Michigan Medical School are dedicated to providing FGLI students with community and multiple mentorship opportunities early in medical school. In addition to facilitating near-peer mentorship opportunities with other FGLI students and residents, we have connected students with specialty-oriented mentorship programs, such as Anastomosis (general surgery), Uroversity (urology), and Michigan Ophthalmology Pipeline. These intentional efforts promote FGLI student mentorship from multiple entities, which allows them to find fit in the mentorship relationship, meet mentors in different stages of their careers, and leverage the benefits of the multi-mentor model. We recommend dedicated support and recognition of the FGLI community from medical school leadership. We further suggest building infrastructure for clear pathways to mentorship opportunities as a more equitable approach to medical education that will build greater diversity across all medical specialties.

Medical Spanish Musculoskeletal and Dermatologic Educational Module.

IntroductionWhile many medical schools provide opportunities in medical Spanish for medical students, schools often struggle with identifying a structured curriculum. The purpose of this module was to provide a flexible, organ system-based approach to teaching and learning musculoskeletal and dermatologic Spanish terminology, patient-centered communication skills, and sociocultural health contexts.MethodsAn 8-hour educational module for medical students was created to teach musculoskeletal and dermatologic medical communication skills in Spanish within the Hispanic/Latinx cultural context. Participants included 47 fourth-year medical students at an urban medical school with a starting minimum Spanish proficiency at the intermediate level. Faculty provided individualized feedback on speaking, listening, and writing performance of medical Spanish skills, and learners completed a written pre- and postassessment testing skills pertaining to communication domains of vocabulary, grammar, and comprehension as well as self-reported confidence levels.ResultsStudents demonstrated improvement in vocabulary, grammar, comprehension, and self-confidence of musculoskeletal and dermatologic medical Spanish topics. While students with overall lower starting proficiency levels (intermediate) scored lower on the premodule assessment compared to higher proficiency students (advanced/native), the postmodule assessment did not show significant differences in skills performance among these groups.DiscussionAn intermediate Spanish level prerequisite for this musculoskeletal and dermatologic module can result in skills improvement for all learners despite starting proficiency variability. Future study should evaluate learner clinical performance and integration of this module into other educational settings such as graduate medical education (e.g., orthopedic, rehabilitation, and dermatology residency programs) and other health professions (e.g., physical therapy and nursing).

"It was as if I wasn't there" - Experiences of everyday racism in a Swedish medical school.

The aim of this study was to explore and analyze how cultural/ethnic minority students at a Swedish medical school perceive and make sense of educational experiences they viewed as related to their minority position. We interviewed 18 medical students (10 women, and 8 men), who self-identified as coming from minority backgrounds. Data were collected and analyzed simultaneously, inspired by constructivist grounded theory methodology. The concepts 'everyday racism' and 'racial microaggressions' served as a theoretical framework for understanding how inequities were experienced and understood. Participants described regularly encountering subtle adverse treatment from supervisors, peers, staff, and patients. Lack of support from bystanders was a common dimension of their stories. These experiences marked interviewees' status as 'Other' and made them feel less worthy as medical students. Interviewees struggled to make sense of being downgraded, excluded, and discerned as different, but seldom used terms like being a victim of discrimination or racism. Instead, they found other explanations by individualizing, renaming, and relativizing their experiences. Our results indicate that racialized minority medical students encounter repeated practices that, either intentionally or inadvertently, convey disregard and sometimes contempt based on ideas about racial and/or cultural 'Otherness'. However, most hesitated to name the behaviors and comments experienced as "discriminatory" or "racist", likely because of prevailing ideas about Sweden and, in particular, medical school as exempt from racism, and beliefs that racial discrimination can only be intentional. To counteract this educational climate of exclusion medical school leadership should provide supervisors, students, and staff with theoretical concepts for understanding discrimination and racism, encourage them to engage in critical self-reflection on their roles in racist power relations, and offer training for bystanders to become allies to victims of racism.

COVID-19 Pandemic Spurs Evolution of an Academic Pathology Department and Laboratory

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused much suffering through disease and death, disruption of daily life, and economic havoc. Global health infrastructure has been challenged, in some cases failing. In the United States, the inability of laboratories to provide adequate testing for the causative pathogen, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, has been the subject of negative press and national debate. Even so, these challenges have prompted pathology practices and clinical labs to change their organizations and operations for the better. The natural positive evolution of the University of Oklahoma Department of Pathology and OU Health Laboratories has been greatly accelerated by the global pandemic. While developing a substantial COVID testing response, our department of pathology and laboratories have evolved a much nimbler organizational structure, established an important research partnership, built a translational research resource, created a significant reference lab capability, and completed many key hires against a national background of hiring freezes and pay cuts. Also, the high visibility of the clinical lab and pathologists during the outbreak has reinforced the value of lab medicine to patient care across our health system. In the midst of significant ongoing changes to the structure and financing of our underlying organizations, high trust among departmental, hospital, health system, and medical school leadership during the pandemic has promoted these positive changes, allowing us to emerge much stronger from this crisis.

Medical Student Leadership Development through a Business School Partnership Model: A Case Study and Implementation Strategy.

Background:There is an ongoing call for leadership development in academic health care and medical students desire more training in this area. Although many schools offer combined MD/MBA programs or leadership training in targeted areas, these programs do not often align with medical school leadership competencies and are limited in reaching a large number of students.Methods:The Leadership Initiative (LI) was a program created by a partnership between a School of Medicine (SOM) and Business School with a learning model that emphasized the progression from principles to practice, and the competencies of self-awareness, communication, and collaboration/teamwork. Through offerings across a medical school curriculum, the LI introduced leadership principles and provided an opportunity to apply them in an interactive activity or simulation. We utilized the existing SOM evaluation platform to collect data on program outcomes that included satisfaction, fidelity to the learning model, and impact.Results:From 2017 to 2020, over 70% of first-year medical students participated in LI course offerings while a smaller percentage of fourth-year students engaged in the curriculum. Most students had no prior awareness of LI course material and were equivocal about their ability to apply lessons learned to their medical school experience. Students reported that the LI offerings provided opportunities to practice the skills and competencies of self-awareness, communication, and collaboration/teamwork.Discussion:Adding new activities to an already crowded medical curriculum was the greatest logistical challenge. The LI was successful in introducing leadership principles but faced obstacles in having participants apply and practice these principles. Most students reported that the LI offerings were aligned with the foundational competencies.

Women Neurosurgeons in Academic and Other Leadership Positions in the United States

To provide the status of women neurosurgeons (WNS) in academic faculty and/or leadership positions in neurosurgery in the United States. Neurosurgery academic programs were defined as having an Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) neurosurgery residency program (NSRP). Using a Google search, gender, academic rank, postgraduate degrees, academic and clinical titles, and subspecialty were recorded for each neurosurgery faculty. Officer gender was recorded for the top 7 neurosurgery U.S. organizations, 7 subspecialty sections, and 50 state neurosurgical societies. WNS were faculty at 77% (89/115) of ACGME NSRPs and constituted 10% of the workforce (186/1773). WNS residents were in 92% of ACGME NSRPs and constituted 19% of the workforce (293/1515). Two NSRPs (8%) had neither WNS faculty nor WNS residents. Of NSRPs without WNS faculty, 52% (13/25) had a faculty size >10. WNS accounted for 3% of NSRP chair positions. Academic rank of WNS faculty was lower than academic rank of men neurosurgeons faculty (P < 0.05). WNS faculty had a higher number of postgraduate degrees (P < 0.05). Pediatrics was the most common subspecialty (30%) among WNS. Over time, WNS held 1% of the leadership positions within the top 7 U.S. neurosurgery organizations and 7% within the 7 subspecialty sections. Over the past 20 years, 28% (14/50) of U.S. state neurosurgical societies had WNS serve as president. In 2020, the gender gap for U.S. WNS faculty and residents still exists. By providing informed benchmarks, our study might help neurosurgery organizations, medical school leadership, hiring committees, editors, and conference speakers to plan their next steps.

Sexual Harassment Among Medical Students: Prevalence, Prediction, and Correlated Outcomes.

Few studies are dedicated to understanding the extent and impact of sexual harassment among medical students. The aim of this study was to use behaviorally specific measures to examine prevalence of sexual harassment toward medical students. Associated mental health and academic impacts were also studied. A multisite survey was conducted at four medical schools. Sexual harassment was measured using the Sexual Experiences Questionnaire (SEQ), a valid and reliable instrument. Students were also surveyed about depressive and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and their level of academic engagement. We also assessed their perceptions of institutional response and whether they felt safe at their institution. The final sample included 524 medical students (response rate = 13%). Findings revealed that 36.6% reported sexual harassment by a faculty/staff member and 38.5% reported harassment by a fellow student. The odds of harassment by faculty/staff, as well as peers, were significantly higher for women with an adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 9.83, 95% confidence interval (CI) = [3.74, 25.80] and multiracial students with an AOR: 2.93, 95% CI: [1.16, 7.39]. Those who experienced sexual harassment were more likely to report academic disengagement and symptoms of depression and PTSD. Sexual harassment in medical schools can potentially limit a student's academic success and negatively impact their mental health. Supportive services and efforts to address peer and professional cultures that promote harassment are needed. Experiences of harassment require swift and competent responses by medical school leadership in collaboration with occupational and/or student health services to mitigate detrimental impacts and support medical students throughout their training.

Blueprinting Evaluation Evidence: Data Sources and Methods.

Your residency program has shifted to a virtual interview process. This necessitates numerous changes, ranging from virtually introducing applicants to your program and meeting current residents to preparing faculty for the new interview process. Your program is proud of its track record of recruiting residents who are a good fit for the program and decides to keep the same overall method for ranking applicants. In preparing for recruitment, strong concerns were raised as to whether the virtual interview processes will continue to yield high-quality residents who fit your program as evidenced by: aligning their interests with the program's mission, having robust examination scores, embracing the values of the profession, being a good team member, and demonstrating a capacity to learn. Given this evaluation focus (ie, fit-for-program) and stakeholder-identified evidence (eg, aligned interests), what sources of data and methods of data collection do you need to evaluate your new virtual interview processes?Data should serve the information needs of stakeholders (utility) while also being accurate, feasible, and fair/ethical.1 Consider an adopt, adapt, and/or author (3A's) approach to data collection. Can you adopt data collection using existing surveys, performance data, and examination scores? Can you adapt an available tool to include items specific to your evaluation focus and evidence sought (eg, add an item on teamwork or alignment with mission to an existing rating tool)? Or can you adapt an available data set with a new analysis? For example, will you rate applicants' medical school leadership roles (as previously found leadership experiences correlate with a good “fit” with your residency mission) or analyze comments on interview rating forms? Your last resort is to author a new data collection strategy, if it is feasible (eg, realistic, cost-effective) and accurate (eg, valid, reliable). If you must author a new strategy, it should provide evidence that is not otherwise available.

Blueprinting Program Evaluation Evidence Through the Lens of Key Stakeholders.

Residency and fellowship program leaders regularly seek information to determine the value or effectiveness of their programs' sponsored activities and processes to drive continuous improvement. This information often includes individuals' judgements and perceptions about what is or is not working. These judgements and perceptions may be influenced by individuals' backgrounds or values, as well as limited data about the program. Thus, key stakeholders in any program evaluation must be queried about evaluation evidence prior to gathering any new information.A stakeholder is an individual or group that has an interest in any decision or activity in a residency or fellowship program. Stakeholders can be internal to the program (residents/fellows, faculty, program coordinator) or the sponsoring organization (Graduate Medical Education Committee, designated institutional official, C-suite leaders). These stakeholders often seek evidence about training experiences and outcomes. Stakeholders can also be external to the program (accreditation bodies, medical school leaders) and may have additional questions that require different kinds of evidence. Patients and community leaders as external stakeholders can provide insights into alignment between the program goals and community interests. The selection of the program's evaluation focus1 will determine the key stakeholders to include in the evaluation and their level of involvement in the process. For example, consider who is responsible or accountable for making decisions about the program, who should be consulted or who just needs to be informed (RACI).2 Spending time up-front to query stakeholders regarding the evidence they need to inform their decisions about the program will optimize their engagement and the evaluation's utility,3 increasing capacity for change.4

A Curriculum to Teach Resilience Skills to Medical Students During Clinical Training.

IntroductionBurnout in medical students is extensive and a critical issue. It is associated with increased rates of depression, suicide, and poor perception of the educational environment. Enhancing resilience, the ability to adapt well in the face of adversity, is a potential tool to mitigate burnout and improve medical student wellness.MethodsOur resilience curriculum consisted of facilitated workshops to cultivate resilience in medical students during their core clerkship rotations. This curriculum served as an introduction to the concept of resilience and taught skills to cultivate resilience and promote wellness. The sessions allowed for identification of and reflection on stressors in the clinical learning environment, including straining team dynamics, disappointment, and uncertainty. Educational sessions included resilience skill-building exercises for managing expectations, letting go of negative emotions, dealing with setbacks, and finding meaning in daily work. Associated materials included lesson plans for small-group facilitators, learner pre- and postcurriculum surveys, and a social media activity guide.ResultsThis curriculum was delivered to 144 clerkship students at two academic institutions over the 2017–2018 academic year. Sessions were well received by medical students, with the majority of students stating that the sessions should continue. The majority of attendees found the sessions valuable and learned new ways to approach challenges.DiscussionStudents valued connecting with peers and feeling less alone through their participation. A challenge was constructing a setting conducive to comfortable reflection for all learners. Not all students found these sessions necessary. Sessions may have improved resilience levels.

Anatomy as a Model Environment for Acquiring Professional Competencies in Medicine: Experiences at Harvard Medical School.

Anatomy education provides students with opportunities to learn structure and function of the human body, to acquire professional competencies such as teamwork, interpersonal skills, self-awareness, and to reflect on and practice medical ethics. The fulfillment of this wide potential can present challenges in courses that are part of an integrated curriculum and shorter than traditional courses. This new reality, together with students' increasing concern about the stresses within medical education, led to efforts at Harvard Medical School to implement practical steps toward an optimal learning environment in anatomy. These were based on core elements of ethical anatomy education and principles of trauma-informed care. Anatomy is conceptualized here as the "first clinical discipline," with relational interactions between anatomical educators, medical students, and body donors/patients. Essential prerequisites for the implementation of this work were support by the medical school leadership, open partnership between engaged students and faculty, faculty coordination, and peer-teaching. Specific interventions included pre-course faculty development on course philosophy and invitations to students to share their thoughts on anatomy. Student responses were integrated in course introductions, combined with a pre-dissection laboratory visit, an introductory guide, and a module on the history and ethics of anatomy. During the course, team-building activities were scheduled, and self-reflection encouraged, for example, through written exercises, and elective life-body drawing. Students' responses to the interventions were overall positive, but need further evaluation. This first attempt of a systematic implementation of an optimal learning environment in anatomy led to the identification of areas in need of adjustment.

Delivering medical education for future healthcare needs: a community-focused challenge

ABSTRACT Medical schools are required to train the workforce needed to care for the population they serve. In the UK, we are expected to produce more graduates choosing to be general practitioners and to equip all graduates with the ability to care for an ageing population with increasingly complex care needs. These doctors need to be effective members of multi-professional teams, possessing generalist skills including an understanding of uncertainty and risk. Curricula where a significant proportion of clinical learning is based in general practice are best placed to address this pedagogic need. The authors evaluate the sociocultural factors which impede the expansion of undergraduate medical education in general practice. These include historic cultural divides between secondary and primary care, medical school leadership, funding, contractual arrangements and capacity in general practice to deliver increasing education of medical students alongside other established and emerging health professions. The piece concludes with two recommendations: undergraduate student teaching should be incorporated into contract negotiations and there must be urgent UK-wide investment in appropriate placement tariff for students. Furthemore, there is an imperative to pilot and evaluate novel collaborative approaches to the education of undergraduate medical and other health professions students.

Achieving Gender Equity Is Our Responsibility: Leadership Matters

Across academic medicine, and particularly among faculty and medical school leadership, the status quo is unacceptable when it comes to gender diversity, equity, and inclusion. The Association of American Medical Colleges has launched a bold gender equity initiative, endorsed by its Board of Directors, to implore academic medical institutions to take meaningful and effective actions.Defining what progress should look like to guide these actions is worth deeper exploration. It is not enough to measure the representation of different genders at various levels of leadership within our institutions. Research and experience we share suggests more must be done, especially for women of diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds. What is needed is a fundamental conversation about privilege, intersectionality across different backgrounds, and progress.Institutional leaders have a choice to make. Will we make gender equity a top priority system-wide because we recognize that doing so leads to organizational excellence? Do we understand that establishing a robust, comprehensive definition of gender equity and how it is practiced will result in better outcomes for all? And are we ready and able to prioritize and be accountable for efforts that are measurable, with clear definitions of progress; driven and reinforced by leadership directives; inclusive of all, including men as well as women of diverse backgrounds and orientations; and systemic rather than ad-hoc? Implementing such actions requires initiating difficult conversations, making conscious choices, and modeling best practices from leaders who have successfully made gender equity a priority.

Cultivating Empathy Through Virtual Reality: Advancing Conversations About Racism, Inequity, and Climate in Medicine

Racism and bias are fundamental causes of health inequities, and they negatively affect the climate of academic medical institutions across the United States. In 2019, the Zucker School of Medicine and Northwell Health piloted a virtual reality (VR) racism experience as a component of professional development for medical school and health system leaders, faculty, and staff. Participants experienced a 60-minute, interactive, large-group session on microaggressions and, as individuals, a 20-minute VR module. These were followed by group reflection and debriefing. The sessions, developed in collaboration with a VR academic team, represented a response to institutional climate assessment surveys, which indicated the need for expanded professional training on cross-cultural communication and enhancing inclusion. In October 2019, 112 faculty and staff participated in the workshop. On a postworkshop survey, completed by 76 participants (67.9%), most respondents (90.8%) reported feeling engaged in the VR experience. Additionally, the majority agreed that VR was an effective tool for enhancing empathy (94.7%), that the session enhanced their own empathy for racial minorities (85.5%), and that their approach to communication would change (67.1%). In open-ended responses, participants frequently conveyed enthusiasm, powerful emotional and physiologic responses, and enhanced empathy. They also suggested more time for follow-up discussions. Next steps include assessing the scalability of the VR module; determining effective complementary engagements; and measuring the module's longitudinal effects on racial empathy, discrimination, and institutional climate. As VR becomes more common in medical education, developing VR modules to address other forms of discrimination (e.g., sexism, homophobia) could also benefit the institutional climates of medical schools and health systems as academic medicine continues to build toward health equity.

Improvements needed in palliative care services.

Improvements needed in palliative care services.

Toward Creating Equity in Awards Received During Medical School: Strategic Changes at One Institution.

Membership in the Alpha Omega Alpha Honor Medical Society (AΩA) is a widely recognized achievement valued by residency selection committees and employers. Yet research has shown selection favors students from racial/ethnic groups not underrepresented in medicine (not-UIM). The authors describe efforts to create equity in AΩA selection at the University of California, San Francisco, School of Medicine, through implementation of a holistic selection process, starting with the class of 2017, and present outcomes.Informed by the definition of holistic review, medical school leaders applied strategic changes grounded in evidence on inclusion, mitigating bias, and increasing opportunity throughout the AΩA selection process. These addressed increasing selection committee diversity, revising selection criteria and training committee members to review applications using a new instrument, broadening student eligibility and inviting applications, reviewing blinded applications, and making final selection decisions based on review and discussion of a rank-ordered list of students that equally weighted academic achievement and professional contributions.The authors compared AΩA eligibility and selection outcomes for 3 classes (2014-2016) during clerkship metric-driven selection, which prioritized academic achievement, and 3 classes (2017-2019) during holistic selection. During clerkship metric-driven selection, not-UIM students were 4 times more likely than UIM students to be eligible for AΩA (P = .001) and 3 times more likely to be selected (P = .001). During holistic selection, not-UIM students were 2 times more likely than UIM students to be eligible for AΩA (P = .001); not-UIM and UIM students were similarly likely to be selected (odds ratio = .7, P = .12)This new holistic selection process created equity in representation of UIM students among students selected for AΩA. Centered on equity pedagogy, which advocates dismantling structures that create inequity, this holistic selection process has implications for creating equity in awards selection during medical education.

Precautions for Operating Room Team Members During the COVID-19 Pandemic

BackgroundThe novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) can infect healthcare workers. We developed an institutional algorithm to protect operating room team members during the COVID-19 pandemic and rationally conserve personal protective equipment (PPE).Study DesignAn interventional platform (operating room, interventional suite, and endoscopy) PPE taskforce was convened by the hospital and medical school leadership and tasked with developing a common algorithm for PPE use, to be used throughout the interventional platform. In conjunction with our infectious disease experts, we developed our guidelines based on potential patterns of spread, risk of exposure, and conservation of PPE.ResultsA decision tree algorithm describing our institutional guidelines for precautions for operating room team members was created. This algorithm is based on urgency of operation, anticipated viral burden at the surgical site, opportunity for a procedure to aerosolize virus, and likelihood a patient could be infected based on symptoms and testing.ConclusionsDespite COVID-19 being a new threat, we have shown that by developing an easy-to-follow decision tree algorithm for the interventional platform teams, we can ensure optimal health care worker safety.

Medicine: A Prescription for Medical Student Leadership Education.

This chapter proposes a medical school leadership curriculum that is context-driven, dovetails seamlessly with the medical student experience, and goes beyond managerial and professional interests by developing purposeful physician-leaders and focusing leadership knowledge on patient outcomes.