Confinement Mechanism Research Articles

Research on the confinement mechanism and calculation method of axial load-bearing capacity of steel-reinforced concrete-filled square steel tubular columns

There are significant discrepancies between the experimental results and numerical analysis outcomes for steel-reinforced concrete-filled steel tubular (SRCFST) columns. This is primarily due to the lack of understanding of the confinement mechanisms of SRCFST and the corresponding models for confined concrete. Therefore, based on the confinement mechanisms of square steel tubes and steel reinforcements on concrete, this paper calculates the effective lateral confining stress to determine the strength enhancement factors for concrete in various confined regions. Drawing from the classical Mander model, the key parameters are modified to establish stress–strain models for concrete in different confined regions. By comparing and analyzing axial compression test data for steel tube-reinforced concrete short columns with different parameters, the study identifies the most suitable axial compression bearing capacity calculation formula for these columns. Additionally, the introduction of stress–strain models into finite element analysis, compared with experimental results, demonstrates that the proposed confinement mechanism and the established stress–strain model for steel-reinforced concrete are reasonable and effective. The theoretical calculation results for the ultimate bearing capacity based on this are well aligned with the simulation and experimental values.

Axially loaded rectangular FRP-concrete-steel hybrid multi-tube concrete stub columns: Performance, confinement mechanism, and design-oriented model

This paper presents an experimental investigation of rectangular glass fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP)-concrete-steel hybrid multi-tube concrete columns (MTCCs) subjected to monotonic axial compression to explore their mechanical behavior and confinement mechanism. Sixteen rectangular MTCCs and eight concrete-filled FRP tube columns (CFFTs) were tested. Four experimental variables, namely aspect ratio, FRP thickness, steel volume ratio, and steel tube configuration, were taken into consideration. The experimental results demonstrated that rectangular MTCCs’ load-bearing capacity and deformability diminished with increasing aspect ratio, as it reduced the effective confinement area of FRP tube to concrete. Additionally, the confined concrete’s compressive strength and axial deformability of rectangular MTCC (with a 6.4% steel volume ratio) enhanced by 21.5% and 32.9%, respectively, compared to the corresponding CFFT. This demonstrated the effectiveness of additional steel confinement. Furthermore, the confinement mechanism of rectangular MTCCs was clarified based on the full-range compressive behavior and dilation property of confined concrete. It included unconfined stage, transition stage, and hardening stage. Finally, a stiffness-based design-oriented model for rectangular MTCCs was established with favorable accuracy.

Compressive behavior of concrete jacketed in basalt TRM shell: Experiments and predictions

Numerous studies have investigated the behavior of textile reinforced mortar (TRM)-confined concrete, yielding various stress-strain models predominantly derived from fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP)-confined concrete. Yet, these models frequently overlook the intricate constitutive behavior of TRM materials and inadequately capture how TRM delivers its confinement effects. This often leads to inaccurate representation of the true characteristics of the confinement system, particularly the crucial role of mortar. This paper focuses on the impact of variations in textile layers and mortar matrix strength on the stress-strain behavior of basalt TRM (BTRM)-confined concrete, aiming to enhance our understanding of the confinement mechanism. Additionally, the study critically evaluates the key components of an existing analysis-oriented stress-strain model for FRP-confined concrete and introduces a refined version that more precisely depicts the behavior of confined concrete. This refined model integrates an identified confinement mechanism to provide accurate predictions of BTRM-confined concrete behavior. Our results reveal that low-grade mortar significantly decreases the actual confinement stiffness of BTRM jackets, inducing a steeper decline in the stress-strain curve, while high-strength mortar slightly diminishes the hoop rupture strain. To address the challenges of quantifying the complex confinement effect-compounded by the variable stress state and constitutive behavior of TRM-a novel coefficient, termed km, is introduced to gauge the influence of mortar strength on the confinement stiffness within the confining pressure equation. Predictive outcomes, including stress-strain and axial-to-lateral strain curves, show close alignment with experimental data, particularly in the slope at the plateau stage. This research significantly advances the quantitative understanding of TRM confinement effects and proposes the potential for designing more ductile structures using these materials, which could lead to enhanced resilience against seismic events and other structural challenges.

Triaxial compressive behavior of 3D printed PE fiber-reinforced ultra-high performance concrete

The layered deposition process of 3D concrete printing can lead to reduced mechanical properties at the interfaces between filaments. To address this limitation, external confinement devices, such as fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) wrapping, have been proposed to enhance the strength of 3D-printed concrete concrete. Achieving this requires a solid understanding of the triaxial mechanical performance of 3D-printed concrete. This study presents an experimental investigation of the triaxial compressive behavior of 3D-printed PE fiber-reinforced ultra-high performance concrete (3DP-PEUHPC). A total of 16 pairs of concrete cubes were prepared, including mold-cast and 3D-printed specimens, and subjected to uniaxial and triaxial compression tests. The results revealed that the 3D-printed specimens exhibited either column-type or diagonal shear failures under triaxial compression. Weak bonding was observed at both filament-fusion and layer-fusion interfaces, with these weaker bonding interfaces, particularly when aligned parallel to the axial load, showing susceptibility to stress concentration and crack initiation. This led to a reduction in load-bearing capacity of the 3D-printed specimens compared to the mold-cast specimens. Importantly, as confining stresses increase, the difference in compressive strength between 3D-printed and mold-cast specimens decreases, highlighting the effectiveness of confinement in mitigating the directional weaknesses inherent in 3D-printed concrete. This paper also presents a modified model for predicting the axial stress-strain relationship of 3DP-PEUHPC under confinement, providing insights into the mechanism of FRP confinement on the compressive strength of 3D-printed concrete structures.

Holographic Gubser flow. A combined analytic and numerical study

Gubser flow is an evolution with cylindrical and boost symmetries, which can be best studied by mapping the future wedge of Minkowski space (R3,1) to dS3 × ℝ in a conformal relativistic theory. Here, we sharpen our previous analytic results and validate them via the first numerical exploration of the Gubser flow in a holographic conformal field theory.Remarkably, the leading generic behavior at large de Sitter time is free-streaming in transverse directions and the sub-leading behavior is that of a color glass condensate. We also show that Gubser flow can be smoothly glued to the vacuum outside the future Minkowski wedge generically given that the energy density vanishes faster than any power when extrapolated to early proper time or to large distances from the central axis. We find that at intermediate times the ratio of both the transverse and longitudinal pressures to the energy density converge approximately to a fixed point which is hydrodynamic only for large initial energy densities. We argue that our results suggest that the Gubser flow is better applied to collective behavior in jets rather than the full medium in the phenomenology of heavy ion collisions and can reveal new clues to the mechanism of confinement.

Unifying Monopole and Center Vortex as the Semiclassical Confinement Mechanism.

Magnetic excitations play a crucial role in understanding the color confinement of 4D Yang-Mills theory, and we have the monopole and the center vortex as plausible candidates to explain its mechanism. Under suitable compactified setups of 4D Yang-Mills theory, we can achieve different weakly coupled descriptions of confinement phenomena: The monopole mechanism takes place on R^{3}×S^{1} with the double-trace deformation, and the center-vortex mechanism is effective on R^{2}×T^{2} with the 't Hooft flux. We unify these two semiclassical descriptions by showing the explicit relation between the monopole and center vortex.

In‐Situ Construction of Functional Multi‐Dimensional MXene‐based Composites Directly from MAX Phases through Gas‐Solid Reactions

AbstractThe weak bonding of A atoms with MX layers in MAX phases not only enables the selective etching of A layers for MXene preparation but brings about the chance to construct A derivatives/MXene composites via in situ conversion. Here, a facile and general gas‐solid reaction systems are elegantly devised to construct multi‐dimensional MXene based composites including AlF3 nanorods/MXene, AlF3 nanocrystals/MXene, amorphous AlF3/MXene, A filled carbon nanotubes/MXene, layered metal chalcogenides/MXene, MOF/MXene, and so on. The intrinsic effect mechanism of interlayer confinement towards crystal growth, catalytic behavior, van der Waals‐heterostructure construction and coordination reaction are rationally put forward. The tight interface combination and synergistic effect from distinct components make them promising active materials for electrochemical applications. More particularly, the AlF3 nanorods/Nb2C MXene demonstrate bi‐directional catalytic activity toward the conversion between Li2S and lithium polysulfides, which alleviates the shuttle effect in lithium‐sulfur batteries.

In-Situ Construction of Functional Multi-Dimensional MXene-based Composites Directly from MAX Phases through Gas-Solid Reactions.

The weak bonding of A atoms with MX layers in MAX phases not only enables the selective etching of A layers for MXene preparation but brings about the chance to construct A derivatives/MXene composites via in situ conversion. Here, a facile and general gas-solid reaction systems are elegantly devised to construct multi-dimensional MXene based composites including AlF3 nanorods/MXene, AlF3 nanocrystals/MXene, amorphous AlF3/MXene, A filled carbon nanotubes/MXene, layered metal chalcogenides/MXene, MOF/MXene, and so on. The intrinsic effect mechanism of interlayer confinement towards crystal growth, catalytic behavior, van der Waals-heterostructure construction and coordination reaction are rationally put forward. The tight interface combination and synergistic effect from distinct components make them promising active materials for electrochemical applications. More particularly, the AlF3 nanorods/Nb2C MXene demonstrate bi-directional catalytic activity toward the conversion between Li2S and lithium polysulfides, which alleviates the shuttle effect in lithium-sulfur batteries.

Confinement Mechanism of Basalt TRM-Confined Concrete: The Role of the Mortar Matrix

Confinement Mechanism of Basalt TRM-Confined Concrete: The Role of the Mortar Matrix

Effect of tie parameters on strength and ductility of concrete columns reinforced with hybrid steel-fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composite bars

Using hybrid reinforcement scheme, comprising steel-FRP composite bar (SFCB) and FRP tie, holds great promise in developing seawater sea-sand concrete (SSC) columns with high strength and ductility for marine infrastructures. However, the impacts of FRP tie configurations on hybrid-reinforced SSC columns have not been thoroughly investigated, which hinders their application. To fill this research gap, this study conducted axial compression tests on hybrid-reinforced SSC columns to assess the impacts of tie type, tie size, tie spacing, and tie size/spacing configuration. The failure mechanism of columns, compressive contribution of SFCBs, and confinement mechanism of FRP ties were revealed. The results show that within the tie spacing limit, the failure mode, elastic modulus, yield strength, and ultimate strength of SFCBs are similar. Longitudinal SFCBs effectively resist compression until concrete crushing, providing considerable compressive contributions. However, the confinement efficiency of pultruded FRP ties is limited by the slip of lap splice and the inferior bent portions. In contrast, the closed-type FRP ties exhibit significantly higher confinement efficiency, which increases the load capacity and ductility of columns by 13.6% and 82.8%, respectively. The tie spacing limit was determined and a prediction model of load capacity was proposed based on theoretical analysis and experimental validation.

Experimental investigation on the compression-bending performance of rubberized concrete columns confined by galvanized corrugated steel tubes

In the construction of building structures, numerous components simultaneously experience axial pressure and lateral bending moments. This concurrent influence plays a pivotal role in structural design considerations. This paper presents an experimental investigation of the compression-bending performance of rubberized concrete-filled corrugated steel tubes (RuCFCST). Twenty-two specimens were tested to evaluate the effect of eccentricity, length-diameter ratio, and confinement factor on the failure mode, load-displacement response, stiffness, compression-bending capacity, and ductility of the columns. The study also conducted a stress analysis on the corrugated steel tube to understand its confinement effect on the core rubberized concrete. The results demonstrate that the confinement factor emerges as a pivotal and sensitive parameter that impacts the compression-bending bearing capacity of RuCFCST columns. The study further elucidated the non-uniform confinement and failure mechanisms of the RuCFCST column, and subsequently assessed the applicability of the specimen's compression-bending bearing capacity as calculated by current specifications. The proposed RuCFCST columns offer new insights and serve as a reference for developing composite member systems with large hoop stiffness, small wall thickness, and environmental sustainability.

Behavior of FRP-interlayer-steel confined concrete columns subjected to eccentric compression

Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP)-interlayer-steel confined concrete (FISC) columns are proposed by bonding a filament-wound FRP tube with a concrete-filled steel tube (CFST) using grouting material to increase the corrosion resistance of CFST columns. FISC columns have high bearing capacity, benefiting from the dual confinement provided by both FRP and steel tubes on the core concrete. Despite this, the current research on the behaviors of FISC columns is limited, particularly regarding the confinement mechanism in FISC columns under eccentric compression. In this paper, a total of twenty short specimens were tested under eccentric compression, including seventeen FISC specimens, two FRP confined concrete-filled steel tubular (CCFT) columns, and one CFST specimen. Failure modes, load versus deflection curves and strain development for FISC specimens were presented and discussed, considering variations in eccentricity, FRP types, FRP thicknesses, and the ratio of FRP and steel confining indexes. Additionally, confining stresses of the FRP and steel tubes were obtained, revealing a non-uniform distribution of confinement on concrete along the sectional circumference, which decreased with increasing eccentricity. Furthermore, by regarding the concrete and grouting material as a whole unity and accounting for the influence of eccentricity, a sectional numerical analysis model for FISC columns was established and validated against test results, and the influences of steel thickness, FRP thickness, and concrete-grouting strength on the N-M correlation curves of FISC columns were investigated.

Gauge-independent transition dividing the confinement phase in the lattice SU(2) gauge-adjoint scalar model

The lattice SU(2) gauge-scalar model with the scalar field in the adjoint representation of the gauge group has two completely separated confinement and Higgs phases according to the preceding studies based on numerical simulations that have been performed in the specific gauge fixing based on the conventional understanding of the Brout-Englert-Higgs mechanism. In this paper, we reexamine this phase structure in a gauge-independent way based on the numerical simulations performed without any gauge fixing. This is motivated to confirm the recently proposed gauge-independent Brout-Englert-Higgs mechanism for generating the mass of the gauge field without relying on any spontaneous symmetry breaking. For this purpose, we investigate correlations between gauge-invariant operators obtained by combining the original adjoint scalar field and the new field called the color-direction field which is constructed from the gauge field based on the gauge-covariant decomposition of the gauge field due to Cho-Duan-Ge-Shabanov and Faddeev-Niemi. Consequently, we reproduce gauge independently the transition line separating the confinement phase and the Higgs phase, and show surprisingly the existence of a new transition line that completely divides the confinement phase into two parts. Finally, we discuss the physical meaning of the new transition and the implications of the confinement mechanism. Published by the American Physical Society 2024

Experimental and prediction model of axial compressive responses of corroded RC cylinders strengthened with CFRP

Currently, the capacity of corroded RC cylinders has been proven to significantly improve after being strengthened with carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP). However, existing experimental data remains insufficient, resulting in few models available for predicting the post-strengthening capacity of corroded cylinder. The current understanding of the mechanism by which corrosion affects the mechanical properties of CFRP strengthened cylinders is also not yet clear. Against this background, this study conducted monotonic axial compression tests on CFRP-strengthened corroded RC cylinders. The experimental results indicate that while the CFRP layer predominantly controls the specimen's load-bearing capacity, the reduction in CFRP rupture strain due to increased corrosion rates should not be overlooked. When the corrosion rate reaches 35 %, the experimentally measured average rupture strain was only 65 % of the theoretical value, marking a 30 % decrease compared to non-corroded specimens. Subsequently, a predictive model for peak stress and strain of CFRP-confined corroded RC cylinders was proposed, which considers the confinement mechanisms of stirrups and CFRP as well as the degradation of CFRP rupture strain. Leveraging the existing test data, a dataset comprising 80 CFRP-strengthened corroded RC cylinder specimens was established to calibrate the key parameters in the proposed prediction model. Comparative analysis with existing models indicates that the peak stress and strain prediction model proposed in this study demonstrated the highest forecasting accuracy (the average errors for peak stress and strain were 14 % and 32.6 %, respectively), while existing other predictive models based on limited datasets suffer from a lack of universality. The experimental data and research conclusions of this article can provide reference for engineering practice and the establishment of models in subsequent research.

Simplified finite-element analysis method for local and global prediction on axial compression behavior of square spiral-confined reinforced concrete-filled steel tubular columns

Square spiral-confined reinforced concrete-filled steel tubular (SSCRCFST) columns have recently been proposed as an advanced form of composite columns. However, there is still a lack of an efficient approach that can accurately predict both their section-average behavior and local concrete behavior. This paper presented a novel simplified method combining elastic finite element analysis with accurate material laws of concrete, steel tube and longitudinal bar to analyze the axially compressive behavior of SSCRCFST columns. The proposed method utilized elastic finite-element analysis to approximate the distribution and ultimate state of confining stress within each core concrete element, which was then substituted into the Mander confined concrete model to obtain the strength enhancement in each core concrete element subjected to different level of lateral confinement. Finally, the integrated compressive curve of a column can be derived by summarizing the strength of all elements. Verification of the proposed method against a large test database confirmed its capability to accurately capture the results of existing compression tests of SSCRCFST columns. The proposed computationally efficient method was then used to investigate both the section-average and local behavior of SSCRCFST column under monotonic compression for an improved understanding of the confinement mechanism. Finally, a reasonably modified design method for the axial strength of SSCRCFST column was proposed based on research findings in this study, which led to the continuity in the axial strength predictions of SSCRCFST columns with various corner radius ratio and showed good agreement with the test results.

Stress path-based compressive strength model of FRP-confined recycled aggregate concrete

The compressive strength model of fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) confined recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) is important in practical engineering designs. The existing research has showed that the compressive strength of FRP-confined RAC can be predicted by the models for FRP confined natural aggregate concrete (NAC). However the accuracy of existing compressive strength models for FRP-confined NAC vary greatly because of the unclear understanding of the confinement mechanisms. Previous research has shown that the axial stress of confined concrete tends to be path-dependent. In this study, a confining stress path-based compressive strength model of FRP-confined RAC is proposed based on theoretical analyses of the confining stress path of FRP-confined RAC. In the proposed model, an effect index is determined to express the influence of confining stress path on the compressive strength. The relationship between the effect index and confinement ratio and that between lateral stress dominant index and confinement ratio are obtained. The proposed model is verified by comparison with previous experimental test results and those predicted by existing representative models. It is found that the compressive strength of FRP-confined RAC is path-dependent for small confinement ratios (less than 0.43) and path-independent for large confinement ratios (larger than 0.43).

Load path dependence for passively and actively confined high-strength concrete

The assumption of load path independence has been instrumental in developing analysis-oriented stress-strain models for FRP-confined concrete. However, there remains no consensus on this assumption when applied to high-strength concrete (HSC). An axial stress gap is typically observed between active and passive confined HSC cases, even when their confinement conditions and deformations are identical. To address the existing research gap, this study conducted experimental tests on a series of HSC specimens under various levels of active and passive confinement. These tests aimed to assess the influence of the stress disparity between the two confinement mechanisms. Cyclic loading was also applied to the confined HSC specimens to derive damage indices (plastic strain, tangent unloading stiffness, and reloading stiffness) and to establish their relationship with the stress gaps. The findings revealed that the stress gap identified from different confinement types increases with the strength of the concrete. It also varies with the axial strain, exhibiting a trend that initially increases and then decreases. The test results further indicated that the presence of this stress difference is a response to internal damage within the concrete. Specifically, under different confinement paths, a reduction in the plastic strain difference that characterizes the damage will lead to a decrease in the stress gap. Moreover, under large deformations, the severe internal damage condition in concrete also reduces the damage differences for HSC experiencing different load paths, which in turn diminishes the stress gap. These insights provide a deeper understanding of how different confinement mechanisms affect the material properties of HSC under various load paths.

Behavior of circular concrete-filled double-skin aluminum alloy tubular stub columns: Test, modeling and confinement-based design

Concrete-filled double-skin steel tubular members have been widely adopted in marine structures, thereby being constantly subjected to harsh corrosive environment. This has triggered the emergence of concrete-filled double-skin aluminum alloy tubular (CFDAT) members of late, wherein aluminum alloy tube is taken as an excellent corrosion-resistant material. Nevertheless, the design guidelines of CFDAT columns have not yet been incorporated into existing international standards due to the absence of relevant research, hindering their structural applications. To this end, this study aims to further investigate the behavior of circular CFDAT stub columns under concentric loading and to clarify the confinement mechanism of this member. In total, 12 CFDAT stub columns were axially tested and the corresponding experimental results were discussed. The research findings showed that the ultimate load of CFDAT specimens is significantly affected by the hollow ratio, concrete strength and diameter-to-wall thickness ratio of outer tube. Using the test results, finite element (FE) model was developed and then utilized to ascertain the confinement mechanism of CFDAT columns, followed by a comprehensive parametric study of such members. Subsequently, the feasibility of current design formulas for the design of CFDAT columns was evaluated against the experimental results and outputs of FE analysis, accompanied by an obvious prediction deviation. Accordingly, a new confinement coefficient reflecting the confinement effect of concrete strength in such members was suggested, which can reasonably capture the interaction between of aluminum alloy tubes and sandwiched concrete. Using this coefficient, a unified design model for estimating the ultimate load of CFDAT and CFAT members was suggested and has better predictive ability than existing design codes and empirical formulas.

Confinement mechanism and modeling of basalt TRM confined concrete: Effect of mortar matrix grade

Textile reinforced mortar (TRM) confinement significantly enhances the compressive strength and ultimate axial strain of concrete. This study mainly investigated the influence of mortar strength on the stress-strain behavior of TRM-confined concrete to advance understanding of its confinement mechanism. We conducted 48 compression tests on concrete columns, comparing those without jackets to those confined in basalt TRM (BTRM). Variables included the number of textile layers (0 to 4) and mortar matrix strengths (from low-grade ‘M1′ to high-grade ‘M3′). Results indicated that a critical confinement stiffness ratio of 0.024 is essential for strain hardening behavior with marked strain capacity enhancement. Low-grade mortar diminished the effective confinement stiffness of BTRM jackets, manifesting as either a steeper descending plateau in the strain-softening stress-strain curve or a more gradual ascending plateau in the strain-hardening curve. High-strength mortar significantly reduced both the hoop rupture strain of BTRM jackets and the ultimate axial strain of the confined concrete. This study integrated the identified BTRM confinement mechanism into an existing stress-strain model for FRP-confined concrete, enhancing its predictive accuracy for BTRM-confined concrete. Specially, a coefficient, termed km, was introduced to quantify the mortar grade's impact on confinement stiffness in the confining pressure equation. Predictive results closely matched experimental data, especially in replicating plateau characteristics of the stress-strain curve.

Analysis-oriented stress-strain model for concrete in steel tubed geopolymer concrete (STGC) columns

To alleviate the brittleness of geopolymer concrete and further promote its engineering application for environmental benefits, a novel type of column, i.e., steel tubed geopolymer concrete (STGC) column, has been proposed recently. Note that an accurate axial stress-strain model is necessary for a comprehensive understanding of the compressive behavior of STGC columns. However, the existing analysis-oriented models are all developed for the conventional concrete-filled steel tube (CFST) columns, and the confinement mechanism of steel tubed concrete columns is significantly different from that of concrete-filled steel tube columns since the axial deformation of steel tube and core concrete is not synchronized for steel tubed concrete columns during the loading process due to the discontinuous steel tube. Furthermore, the dilation properties of STGC columns at the initial loading are significantly overestimated by the existing lateral-axial strain models. Besides, steel-confined geopolymer concrete (GPC) experiences a more remarkable softening behavior resulting from the more significant brittleness of GPC than that of ordinary concrete. Thus, the deformation models are proposed in this study and the active-confinement base model is also developed for GPC based on the mechanical characteristics of STGC columns under axial compression. Then a new analysis-oriented model is proposed for steel tubed geopolymer concrete. Comparisons between the theoretical calculations and the test results indicate that the proposed model can provide reasonable predictions for both steel stress evolution and the stress-strain relationship of STGC.