Mechanical Properties Of Wood Research Articles

Effects of oil heat treatment on poplar wood properties: A pilot scale study

Pilot-scale oil heat treatment was conducted to enhance the quality of poplar wood obtained from a fast-growing plantation. Three target temperatures, namely 180, 190, and 200 ˚C, were chosen for the oil heat treatment process. Clear, small specimens were cut from the lumber, following the prescribed standards for assessing wood quality. Light microscopy revealed the ruptures and deformation of the wood cell wall as the treatment temperature increased. The volumetric swelling of the treated specimen decreased proportionally with the increase in treatment temperature. The impact of oil heat treatment on the mechanical properties of wood varied depending on the specific type of mechanical strength and processing temperature. The modulus of rupture, toughness, and hardness of the treated specimens drastically decreased at 200°C. However, the specimens treated at 200°C exhibited much lower mass loss during the fungal decay test. The results of the analytical test showed an increase in the crystalline cellulose content and thermal stability of the treated wood, due to the thermal degradation of hemicelluloses and amorphous regions of cellulose. Overall, it is concluded that oil heat treatment of poplar wood in the optimal temperature is an efficient approach to upgrade its quality with minimal reduction in mechanical strength.

The influence of road traffic and industrial plant-induced air pollution on the physical, mechanical, chemical and morphological properties of the black pine wood

Road traffic pollution and industrial plant-induced pollution affect negatively the development of forest trees. How forest trees are affected by their growing environment is important for sustainable environment. The study aimed to investigate the physical, mechanical, chemical, and morphological properties of the Pinus nigra (black pine) tree which grows under different conditions. Tree samples were chosen from three different lands where were inside the forest (O), near the roadside (Y), and near the factory (F). It was studied whether there were any significant differences among the “O”, “Y” and “F” in terms of their wood properties such as physical, mechanical, chemical, and morphological. As a result, the “O” samples demonstrated more regular annual ring structure. On the other hand, it was observed that the “Y” samples had longer and wider tracheid cells. In addition, “Y” samples had better mechanical strength than “O” and “F”. Environmental pollution caused the presence of some different elements (chlorine and iron) in “Y” and “F”. As a result, it was determined that the trees growing near the roadside or near industrial plants have significant differences from forest trees which are far away from pollutions. It is possible to say that Pinus nigra (black pine) is resistant to environmental stress. For this reason, it can be recommended to use it as a barrier to reduce air pollution on the roadsides.

EVALUATION OF DYNAMIC AND STATIC MODULI OF ELASTICITY OF HYBRID EUCALYPTUS WOOD FROM DIFFERENT LOCATIONS IN GHANA

This study explores the mechanical properties of hybrid eucalyptus wood, with a focus on dynamic and static moduli of elasticity (MOE), which is crucial for understanding the stiffness behaviour of wood. The research employs acoustic and static measurements on samples prepared from six trees sourced from Winneba and Amantia in Ghana. The results reveal significant variations in static and dynamic MOE, with higher static MOE observed in both Amantia and Winneba samples. However, Winneba and Amantia samples at the tree level were found to be insignificant statistically. The densities of the samples from the two locations, Winneba and Amantia, were found to be significantly different. Correlation studies revealed strong relationships between wood density and static MOE, as well as static and dynamic MOE, providing valuable insights into the comprehensive characterization of the eucalyptus globulus species grown in Ghana.

Impact of Wood-Boring Larvae of Xylotrechus arvicola (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) on Mechanical Properties of Vitis vinifera Plants

Xylotrechus arvicola represents a significant insect pest impacting Vitis vinifera within the principal wine-producing territories of the Iberian Peninsula. The larvae of this species bore into grapevine wood, resulting in significant structural and biomechanical deterioration to the plant. Compressive and flexural tests were conducted to assess the mechanical properties of wood affected by X. arvicola. Compressive and flexural strength exhibited a decline with the escalation of the Total Damaged Surface Area (TDSA) of the samples, ranging from 0.31% to 0.73% in trunks and from 0.04 to 0.76% in branches, irrespective of the wood moisture content (fresh and dry). The most significant reduction in resistance occurred in affected dry trunks and branches. Notably, the deflection at break for dry samples was lower compared to fresh samples (65.00 and 97.85 mm, respectively). Moreover, the deflection at break for affected fresh samples (164.37 mm) significantly surpassed that of unaffected fresh samples (72.58 mm) and affected dry samples (37.50 mm). It is noteworthy that a higher percentage of TDSA coincided with diminished wood resistance. The percentage of fungal growth symptoms observed in affected wood samples was 66.66% for dry trunks, 75.00% for fresh branches, and 60.00% for dry branches. The damage inflicted by larvae facilitated the spread of grapevine diseases via emergence of holes created by insects upon exiting the wood and through the larval galleries connected to them. This damage also altered the mechanical properties of grapevine plants, with fresh branches exhibiting the most pronounced effects.

Effect of the Hole Diameter in Mechanical Properties of Wood: Experimental and Numerical Approaches

Introducing openings or holes into wooden structures is a common practice for providing utility services. However, this practice leads to stress concentration, resulting in a reduction in stiffness and load-carrying capacity. Therefore, understanding the effects of holes on beam properties is important for design considerations. This study investigates the mechanical behavior of a wooden beam made from juvenile Pinus elliottii containing open cylindrical holes with three different diameters: 4, 8, and 12 mm. The mechanical properties were evaluated for compression parallel to the fibers, quasi-static bending, and tension perpendicular to the fibers. Numerical simulations were conducted using a finite element (FE) model, considering the orthotropic elastic properties determined from experimental tests and elastic ratios reported in the literature. The experimental results indicated that the influence of hole diameter was not significant on the compressive properties; however, longitudinal crack failures began to form for holes with diameters of 8–12 mm. Regardless of hole size, the compressive and bending characteristics revealed that hole location did not affect the stiffness, strength, or damage mechanisms.

Compressive Strength parallel to grains of Charred Paulownia Wood

Wood is a common flammable in the building fire and the dominant fuel in the wildland fire. In this study, the surface of wood specimens has been pre-heated by various radiative heat fluxes and heating times to achieve varying char layer thicknesses. The compressive strength parallel to grains versus various charring thicknesses has been obtained by an electronic universal testing machine (WDW-20). Experimental results demonstrate that a higher heat flux and longer heating times promote the formation of the char layer, but the compressive strength versus the charring thickness first decreases to its minimum value and subsequently remains stable. For the 7 kW/m2 case, there is a rapid decrease in compressive strength for the 5-7 heating period. For example, the compressive strength is 31.7 MPa after the initial 5-minute period, and 3.69 MPa after the initial 7-minute period. For the radiative heat fluxes from 7 kW/m2 to 10 kW/m2, the reduction rate of compressive strength will increase from 1.32 MPa/min to 3.75 MPa/min for the initial 5-minute period, and increase from 4.95 MPa/min to 5.34 MPa/min for the initial 7-minute heating period. This study helps us understand the influence of charring processes on the mechanical properties of wood and the failure of timber structures.

Prediction of Physical and Mechanical Properties of Heat-Treated Wood Based on the Improved Beluga Whale Optimisation Back Propagation (IBWO-BP) Neural Network

The physical and mechanical properties of heat-treated wood are essential factors in assessing its appropriateness for different applications. While back-propagation (BP) neural networks are widely used for predicting wood properties, their accuracy often falls short of expectations. This paper introduces an improved Beluga Whale Optimisation (IBWO)-BP model as a solution to this challenge. We improved the standard Beluga Whale Optimisation (BWO) algorithm in three ways: (1) use Bernoulli chaos mapping to explore the entire search space during population initialization; (2) incorporate the position update formula of the Firefly Algorithm (FA) to improve the position update strategy and convergence speed; (3) apply the opposition-based learning based on the lens imaging (lensOBL) mechanism to the optimal individual, which prevents the algorithm from getting stuck in local optima during each iteration. Subsequently, we adjusted the weights and thresholds of the BP model, deploying the IBWO approach. Ultimately, we employ the IBWO-BP model to predict the swelling and shrinkage ratio of air-dry volume, as well as the modulus of elasticity (MOE) and bending strength (MOR) of heat-treated wood. The benefit of IBWO is demonstrated through comparison with other meta-heuristic algorithms (MHAs). When compared to earlier prediction models, the results revealed that the mean square error (MSE) decreased by 39.7%, the root mean square error (RMSE) by 22.4%, the mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) by 9.8%, the mean absolute error (MAE) by 31.5%, and the standard deviation (STD) by 18.9%. Therefore, this model has excellent generalisation ability and relatively good prediction accuracy.

Effect of partial delignification and densification on chemical, morphological, and mechanical properties‏ of wood: Structural property evolution

Efforts have been dedicated to developing sustainable alternatives for conventional construction materials, resulting in the development of densified wood as an innovative, environmentally friendly, and high-performance material. This study focuses on investigating the effects of treatment parameters (e.g., partial delignification boiling time, chemical concentrations, and hot-pressing pressures) on the chemical, morphological, and mechanical properties of the densified wood. Results revealed that the partial delignification process of low-density Balsa wood reduced lignin content by 50–80%, which enhanced the crystallinity of the wood by 21–54%. However, prolonged periods of partial delignification caused a degradation in the crystalline regions in wood. The modulus of rupture (MOR) and modulus of elasticity (MOE) of the densified wood samples increased by 90–680% and 10–810% compared with those of the raw wood samples, respectively. The MOR of the densified wood also showed a dependency on lignin content and porosity. An optimal lignin content of approximately 10% was associated with the highest MOR in densified wood. Moreover, the relationship between the MOR and porosity suggested that the MOR improvement occurred in two stages. The first stage of MOR improvement is controlled by the reduction in the porosity and the second stage is controlled by the improved hydrogen bonding among cellulose nanofibrils.

Experimental study and numerical simulation of adhesively bonded timber-concrete composite panels: bending behavior, adhesive shear and peel stress distributions

This study investigated the structural response of timber-plain concrete panels bonded with epoxy and PUR adhesives under a four-point bending load, both experimentally and numerically. Tests evaluating epoxy- and PUR-bonded glulam-plain concrete panels measured ultimate load (Fult), effective bending stiffness (EIeff), and mid-span deflection (∆ult). Shear stress within the adhesives was monitored using fiber optic sensors. Numerical simulations estimated Fult and EIeff with errors of 5% and 14%, respectively. These discrepancies may stem from assuming defect-free wood (e.g., no knots), idealized boundary conditions, uniform adhesive thickness assumptions, and unmeasured mechanical and damage properties of wood and concrete (Detailed error source analysis is available in Section 4). Qualitative validation involved comparing sensor-recorded shear stress with simulation results. A parametric study evaluated the effects of adhesive thickness (0.5, 1, and 3 mm), concrete-wood depth ratio (50/85, 85/85, and 150/85 mm/mm), wood type (spruce (Picea), beech (Fagus), and Azobe (Lophira)), concrete strength class (C12/15 and C30/37), and span length (2, 4, and 8 m) on the bending behavior of the panel, and the shear and peel stress distribution within the adhesive bond line. Shear stress prevailed over peel stress in the adhesives, with peel stress approaching shear stress as span length increased (max. τa / max. σa ∼ 3.5–7). The ultimate load typically resulted in concrete compression damage and wood fiber damage, influenced by the concrete strength class and wood type. Higher depth ratios led to tension damage in concrete, while adhesive thickness had a minimal impact on stress distribution and failure modes.

A study of dimensional effects on the stress characteristics of Yunnan pine shafts considering seismic strain rates

Abstract The mechanical properties of wood are affected by member size and loading rate. Axial compression tests with different seismic strain rates and sizes of specimens were carried out to investigate the static and dynamic dimensional effects of Yunnan pine timber. And obtained load-displacement curves, compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, peak strain and Poisson’s ratio. Weibull’s weakest chain theory, Bazant’s law of dimensional effects and Carpinteri’s law of multiple fractal dimensional effects were used to analyze the dimensional effects on the compressive strength of wood, and to establish a wood strength model that takes strain rate effects and dimensional effects into account. The results showed that the compressive strength, elastic modulus, and Poisson’s ratio of Yunnan pine wood exhibit both size and strain rate effects. Under the coupling effect of strain rate effect and size effect, the size effect of Yunnan pine wood strength decreases with increasing strain rate, while the strain rate effect increases with increasing size. A size effect model for compressive strength of wood considering strain rate effect based on three theories and experimental data can well describe the dynamic size effect of Yunnan pine wood strength.

Chemical Composition and Mechanical Properties of Wood after Thermal Modification in Closed Process under Pressure in Nitrogen.

In this study, silver birch (Betula pendula) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) wood planks (1000 × 100 × 25 mm) were thermally modified in pilot-scale equipment. Research extended our knowledge of the thermal modification (TM) process in a closed system under nitrogen pressure, as well as how process parameters affect the chemical composition and mechanical strength of wood. Various TM regimes were selected-maximum temperature (150-180 °C), modification time (30-180 min), and initial nitrogen pressure (3-6 bar). Chemical analyses were performed to assess the amount of extractives, lignin, polysaccharides and acetyl group content following the TM process. The mechanical properties of TM wood were characterized using the modulus of rupture (MOR), modulus of elasticity (MOE), and Brinell hardness. The MOR of both studied wood species following TM in nitrogen was reduced, but MOE changes were insignificant. The Brinell hardness of TM birch wood's tangential surface was much higher than that of the radial surface, although Scots pine wood showed the opposite pattern. TM birch and pine wood specimens with the highest mass loss, acetone soluble extractive amount, and the lowest xylan and acetyl group content had the lowest MOR and Brinell hardness.

Removal of Plastics from Micron Size to Nanoscale Using Wood Filter.

Plastic pollution, particularly microplastic (MP) and nanoplastic (NP) pollution, has become a significant concern. This study explores the use of porous wood for filtration to remove MPs and NPs and investigates their removal mechanisms. Undecorated fir wood with a thickness of 4 mm achieves a 91% removal rate for model polystyrene (PS) MPs (2.6 μm) at a water flux of 198 L/m2h. However, its separation performance for NPs (255.8 and 50.9 nm) is poor. It also shows that fir wood (coniferous wood) has a higher PS removal rate than poplar wood (hard wood). With poly dimethyl diallyl ammonium chloride (PDDA) modification, both MPs and NPs are effectively removed, with NPs' removal rate increasing from <10% to 90% for PDDA/wood. Characterization results reveal that size-exclusive interception dominates for micron-sized particles, and electrostatic interaction is crucial for nanosized particles. Additionally, intercepted NPs have been used as a strong binder for hot-pressed wood to remarkably enhance the mechanical properties of wood, suggesting a novel recycle utilization of discarded wood filters. Overall, this renewable wood material offers a simple solution for tackling MP/NP pollution.

Performance prediction method based on Liang-Kleeman information flow and wood tracheid morphology

In order to improve the production efficiency of the wood industry and achieve intelligent feedback control in production processes, non-destructive online prediction of performance is crucial. With the increasing maturity of nanotechnology, the use of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is becoming increasingly frequent. The Liang Kleeman (L-K) information flow theory is a quantitative causal analysis method based on time series data, which has the advantage of fast calculation. In order to predict the mechanical properties of wood in real-time, fast, and non-destructive manner, this article obtains feature data from SEM photos of wood tracheids, A performance prediction method based on L-K information flow and wood tracheid morphology was proposed. This method first extracts the aspect ratio, wall cavity ratio, double thick wall, and cavity diameter ratio characteristics of wood tracheids from SEM photos, and then calculates the L-K information flow of the tracheid characteristics on mechanical properties (compressive strength, flexural strength, flexural modulus of elasticity, tensile strength). The causal influence strength between them is quantitatively characterized by the coefficient of variation of the L-K information flow, Then, a linear function is constructed with tracheid characteristics as the independent variable, mechanical properties as the dependent variable, and causal influence strength as a coefficient to achieve non-destructive prediction of wood properties. The experimental results show that the highest prediction accuracy of this method reaches 92%, effectively achieving online performance prediction based on causal relationships and image data, providing data reference for screening high-quality performance wood.

Biodeterioration Field Test and Mechanical Properties of Maesopsis eminii Wood Treated with Boron Preservative and Plant Oils

Boron preservatives have insecticidal and fungicidal effects. The leaching problem of boron preservative-treated wood can be overcome using oil treatment. This study evaluated the resistance in a biodeterioration field test and the mechanical properties of manii wood (Maesopsis eminii Engl.) treated with boric acid and plant oils. Manii wood samples were impregnated in two stages with boric acid and vegetable oils (neem, tamanu, and candlenut oils). The impregnation process was performed in a chamber at a pressure of 7 kg cm−2 for approximately 4 h. Next, the sample was heated at temperatures of 60 °C, 120 °C, and 180 °C. The biodeterioration field test was conducted in ground contact for 100 days. In addition, mechanical tests in terms of modulus of elasticity (MOE), modulus of rupture (MOR), and hardness were conducted using an Instron universal testing machine. The test results prove that the combination of boric acid preservation with neem, tamanu, or candlenut oil treatment increases the resistance of manii wood to subterranean termites, especially when the treatment is accompanied by heating at 120 °C. The combination treatment of boric acid and plant oils also increases the MOE, MOR, and hardness values of manii wood.

Modernization of drying chambers based on fuzzy regulation

One of the most important stages of woodworking is drying, thanks to which the physical and mechanical properties of wood are improved and its shelf life is increased. Drying of wood is a process that significantly affects the external environment. The fact is that drying most often takes place in convection drying chambers, which consume a lot of energy and are not efficient enough due to constant air exchange with the atmosphere. At the same time, about 50 % of the heat energy received is lost, and carbon dioxide released from the chamber negatively affects the environment. The paper proposes the modernization of a typical drying chamber to increase its efficiency by replacing the classical PID control with fuzzy logic algorithms in order to reduce the duration of transient processes.

Dimensional Stability and Mechanical Properties of Gmelina arborea Roxb. Wood Thermally Modified through Open Reactor and Low-Pressure Closed Reactor Systems

This study focused on the thermal modification of Gmelina arborea Roxb. wood following processes using the open reactor and low-pressure closed reactor systems. The aim is to determine the optimum treatment conditions suitable for gmelina wood due to its poor drying characteristics using the low-pressure closed reactor thermal modification. Subsequent to thermal modification under both processes, the dimensional stability and mechanical properties of gmelina wood were investigated. Effects of the thermal modifications under the open and low-pressure closed reactor systems on mechanical properties were additionally reported. The outcome of this investigation revealed that mass loss increased with increasing treatment temperatures, but minimal mass losses were observed for samples modified in the low-pressure closed reactor system. Due to the low-pressure regime used in the closed reactor system, a lesser improvement was found in volumetric shrinkage, fibre saturation point and tangential-to-radial swelling compared to the improvement in these properties in the open reactor system. Results further revealed that the mechanical properties of gmelina wood deteriorated more rapidly after modification in the open reactor system. Since the properties of modified gmelina wood are comparable at 180 °C under both systems, the closed reactor system will be investigated further to arrive at a suitable treatment condition under higher pressure variations. The thermal modification of gmelina wood with the closed reactor system is more promising in delivering a better quality of modified gmelina wood.

Mechanical and morphological bond line properties of silver birch wood pretreated by aqueous extraction

While bonding for structural applications in Europe was limited to only a few softwood species in the past, forest alterations toward more climate stability will increase the diversity of tree species. This requires an understanding of typal wood-adhesive interactions. To help facilitate birch wood bonding, its cold-water soluble extractives and their effects on mechanical performance and bond line morphology were studied using water-borne melamine-urea-formaldehyde (MUF) and hydrophobic solvent-free polyurethane (PUR) adhesives. Extractives classes were identified via mass spectrometry and their concentration and extraction kinetics were evaluated. The analysis revealed that the mechanical properties of the bond line were essentially unaffected by extraction when using the hydrophobic PUR adhesive. Increased degrees of extraction resulted in reduced MUF penetration, and slightly thicker bond lines, however, the mechanical results indicate improved performance, indicating fewer defects in the cured adhesive network.

The effect of moisture content over the fibre saturation points on the impact strength of wood.

The article's main aim is to assess the mechanical behaviour of linden under high-rate loadings (impact) and its change due to changes in moisture content (MC) over fibre saturation point. For assessing the mechanical properties of green wood, mainly the data of the dried wood is not applicable since the moisture content can drastically affect the mechanical properties of the wood. By testing both dried and high-moisture-content wood, we can understand a general viewpoint toward the effect of the moisture content on the impact behaviour of the wood. Several test samples were made of linden wood with different moisture content levels of 11%, 60% and 160%. A drop-weight impact machine tested the specimens to measure the reaction force of the hammer during a very short impact period. The results of the tests were parameters such as force-time chart, the maximum force required for crack initiation, the impact bending strength (IBS) and the work needed for crack initiation. The results indicated an increase in MC decreases the maximum force, work required for crack initiation and IBS drastically. However, when MC exceeded the fibre saturation point (FSP), there was no further influence on the force pattern and maximum required force.

The physical, mechanical, and chemical properties of black cherry tree wood (Prunus serotina Ehrh.) and its susceptibility to fungal decomposition in areas where it is secondary and invasive: a case study in the Kampinos National Park (Poland)

AbstractThe properties of black cherry mature wood (Prunus serotina Ehrh.) and its susceptibility to fungal decay were studied in the invaded range of the species on six trees aged between 39 and 47 years old growing in poor, acidic soils with varying levels of moisture and organic carbon and nitrogen content. Wood from trees that grew in wetter and richer soil had better physical properties. Of the 95 parameters analyzed, 80 showed significant differences in favor of this wood. These differences included wider rings that averaged 3.25 mm, a higher density of 662.71 kg/m3 at 12% humidity, and 1.5 times higher content of extractives. Gas chromatography with mass spectrometry revealed the presence of 44 extractives. Out of these, six had antifungal properties and were found in the wood of trees grown in richer soil, corresponding to 62.93% of the peaks area of all identified substances. Only three were found in trees grown in poorer soil, corresponding to 8.68% of the peaks area respectively. The wood of trees grown in more fertile soil was also less prone to fungal decay, which was generally low. Only Trametes versicolor caused a mass loss of more than 10% of the wood in both sites out of the four basidiomycete species tested. The results indicate that even slight variations in soil fertility and moisture can benefit black cherry, leading to differences in wood features and properties in its exotic range.

Modification of wood via biochar particle impregnation

AbstractThermal-hydro-mechanical (THM) densification was performed on Picea abies (spruce), Abies alba (European fir), Populus nigra (poplar), and Fagus sylvatica (beech). Prior to THM treatment, the wood was impregnated with an aqueous solution containing 1%, 2.5%, and 5% biochar. Mechanical characteristics (modulus of elasticity, modulus of rupture), set-recovery, and contact angle were measured and compared for all samples in relation to the percentage of biochar present in the mixture. Impregnation with biochar/water mixture in combination with THM treatment resulted in densified wood with improved properties. Spruce showed the most notable improvement in water resistance, in addition to having the largest reduction in set-recovery at 57% and the highest contact angle value at 120°. There was also significant improvement in the mechanical properties of spruce wood, especially when impregnated with 2.5% and 5% of biochar, with MOE values of 17.09 and 18.61 GPa and MOR values of 190.47 and 176.41 MPa, respectively. The only comparable values were observed in beech impregnated with 2.5% biochar mixture, with a MOR value of 204.6 MPa. These findings highlight the effectiveness of biochar-enhanced impregnation together with THM treatment in improving the structural and mechanical properties of wood, with distinct improvements observed in spruce and a few improvements in beech.