Mechanical Compression Tests Research Articles

Instability of common beans during storage causes hardening: The role of glass transition phenomena

Long-term storage of common beans leads to loss of cooking quality and an ill-defined solution, appropriate storage, is recommended. Therefore, the polymer science theory of glasses that hypothesizes stability of a system below its glass transition temperature (Tg) was applied to determine bean stability during storage in relation to cooking behavior. Since composition influences Tg, powders of cotyledons and seed coats in addition to whole beans were equilibrated above different saturated salt solutions in order to generate materials with different moisture contents. A thermal mechanical compression test which measures compressibility changes in a system upon reaching its glass-rubber transition temperature region was conducted to obtain the Tg. A Tg-moisture relation was established, whose relevance was confirmed by storage and cooking experiments which showed development of hard-to-cook in beans stored above Tg but not below it. Therefore, this relation constitutes a stability map for storage of common beans.

A compliant microstructured thermal interface material for dry and pluggable interfaces

Thermal interface materials (TIMs), such as thermal pastes and pads, can successfully enhance contact thermal conductance by filling the gaps caused by the surface nonflatness and roughness. However, there is still an unaddressed demand for TIMs which can be applied to pluggable or reworkable interfaces in electronic systems, such as in opto-electronic transceiver modules. Reducing the contact thermal resistances at these interfaces has become increasingly important as device power density increases. These applications require dry contact interfaces that can offer the required thermal conductance under a low pressure and endure repeated mechanical compression and shear. We present a compliant metallized finned zig zag micro-spring array, as a low-cost dry TIM, that allows conformal interface contact at low pressures (∼10–100 s of kPa) by effectively accommodating surface nonflatness at a rate of a few µm per kPa. Experimental characterization of the mechanical compliance and thermal resistance confirm that this dry TIM can achieve conformal thermal contact between nonflat mating surfaces under low pressures. The total insertion thermal resistance of this dry TIM, even when mating to nonflat surfaces, is comparable to that of a polished and flat metal-to-metal contact. Mechanical compression and shear cycling tests are performed to assess the durability.

Compressive behaviour of a damaged omega stiffened panel: Damage detection and numerical analysis

The damage detection of composite material structures is one of the major concerns in aerospace field, given their even more frequent use. In this work, the failure of an aerospace omega stiffened CFRP panel subject to compressive load is experimentally and numerically studied. The specimen is characterised by a 0° oriented notch damage, with respect to the load direction, located in the middle of the bay. A compressive mechanical test has been performed to determine the global buckling phenomenon and the progressive fibre-matrix damage development induced by the compressive load acting on the panel. The panel has been instrumented with back-to-back strain gauges in skin and stringers locations. Non-destructive techniques, such as lock-in thermography and ultrasounds, have been used to detect the damage status. Numerical analyses have been carried out by means of the FE software ABAQUS and the results have been compared against the experimental data. Finally, an un-notched configuration has been numerically tested and the results have been compared against the notched configuration, in order to assess the influence of the pre-existent damage on the mechanical and failure behaviour of the structure during service loading conditions.

Effect of molecular structures on static and dynamic compression properties of clay and amphiphilic clay/carbon nanofibers used as fillers in UHMWPE/composites for high‐energy‐impact loading

ABSTRACTThree different ultrahigh‐molecular‐weight polyethylene (UHMWPE)–clay nanocomposites (Muscovite, Cloisite 30B and amphiphilic clay/carbon nanofibers) were investigated with the nanocomposite nanomorphology studied before and after dynamic mechanical compressive tests at high strain rates. Their material structure and thermal properties were investigated using techniques such as step‐scan differential scanning calorimetry, split Hopkinson pressure bar, synchrotron small angle X‐ray scattering (SAXS), and dynamic mechanical analysis. Results were associated with morphological changes observed after deformation. chemical vapor deposition (CVD)‐modified nanocomposite, due to the molecular bonding and the extra functional groups, is designed with crystalline structures with fewer defects and higher stability. The increase in particulate/polymer interactions observed for the CVD‐modified material decreased the elongation in the quasi‐static test. However, the dynamic mechanical behavior contradicted the quasi‐static behavior because at very high strain rates there was not sufficient time for the interlamellar and intralamellar defect facilitated plastic flow and the material transitioned through the glassy state. The SAXS results show that deformation strongly induced changes in the UHMWPE and UHMWPE–clay nanocomposite morphology. SAXS indicates that CVD‐modified samples became more compact and dense, thus corroborating the formation of additional secondary bonds between structures and/or the carbon nanofibers alignment. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2019, 136, 47094.

Effect of cellulose nanocrystals on scaffolds comprising chitosan, alginate and hydroxyapatite for bone tissue engineering

In this study, chitosan/alginate/hydroxyapatite/nanocrystalline cellulose scaffolds were successfully fabricated by the using of freeze-drying method, followed by dicationic crosslinking using CaCl2. The chemical structure and morphology along with mechanical properties of the formed scaffolds respecting to various CNC contents were studied by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and mechanical compression test. Chemical interaction and electrostatic attraction between chitosan (CS) and alginate with various CNC ratios were affirmed by FTIR spectroscopy. Results depicted that, scaffolds containing CNC exhibited remarkable improvement in both swelling ratio up to 110% compared without CNC (63%) and compressive strength when compared with other scaffolds. In addition, the average pore size increased, dramatically, with increasing of CNC up to 230 μm. Porosity was also obeyed the sequence and attainted a maximum value at 93.6%. The growth and cell attachment of fibroblast cells of the selected scaffold were examined prolonging to the cell viability by using Alamar Blue (AB) and then confirmed using SEM. The results indicated that the scaffold comprising CNC has a promising cell growth and cell adherence, and thus expected to have a potent possibility for applications in bone tissue culture.

Synthesis of alite cement with low environmental impact by using sludge from a dam reservoir and zinc sulphate as a mineralizer

The objective of this study is the synthesis of a cement rich in reactive phases, obtained by burning, at a temperature lower than or equal to 1300 °C, a raw material composed of sludge from a dam with a complement of lime, and using zinc sulphate as a mineralizer. This study gives the mineralogical, physical and mechanical characteristics and properties of the synthesized cement. Qualitative and quantitative X-ray diffraction analysis was used to characterize the raw materials and the minerals of the cement. The evolution of its hardening was monitored and quantified by isothermal calorimetry, DTG, X-ray diffraction and mechanical compression tests on pure paste samples. The strengths obtained at 7 and 28 days make it possible to aim at a 32.5N classification.

On parameters affecting the racking stiffness of timber-glass walls

An extensive parametric numerical study was performed after completed experimental campaign of timber-glass hybrid walls (TGW and TGWE). 36 timber-glass models (TG) with different outer dimensions were built and analysed with a goal to capture the basic response of mechanically tested timber-glass walls and to determine the racking stiffness of the calculated numerical models. Timber frame was modelled using linear beam elements with hinges in all four corners, an IGU was modelled as a multilayer shell and finally a layer of adhesive was modelled with linear and nonlinear springs, which were distributed circumferentially around the edge of IGU and connected onto a timber frame. Normal and shear stiffness coefficients for linear-elastic springs were calculated, while for nonlinear springs a special series of mechanical tests on polyurethane (PU) adhesive was performed since a lack of data available in addition to the desired amount of information needed for the numerical analysis. Uniaxial tension, compression and shear tests were made to obtain the results in form of the load-displacement curve, which presented a direct input for nonlinear normal and shear springs of the mathematical model. For each compression and tension mechanical test three specimens were prepared and tested up to rupture, while a double-lap shear test was conducted using two specimens giving two results each. PU adhesive specimens of the first series had dimensions of 50 mm $$\times $$ 50 mm and thickness of 5.0 mm. Mechanical tests were repeated for two additional thicknesses of PU adhesive, namely 7.0 mm and 9.0 mm. After completed experimental investigation on PU adhesive joint, together 108 numerical models with different external dimensions were analysed in commercial code SAP2000. Having the correct information about the stiffness of the single TG shear wall one can calculate the stiffness of the entire timber-glass building built with such walls.

Influence of the delignification process on the properties of panels made with Guadua fibers and plant resin

The influence of the process of delignification of bamboo fibers on the physical and mechanical properties of panels made with Guadua fibers and a plant polyurethane was studied. The modification of the fiber surfaces was carried out by means of a chemical method and a physical one. The chemical method consisted of the application of an alkaline treatment, varying the concentrations of sodium hydroxide (10% and 20%). The physical method consisted of a treatment with methane cold plasma. Manual molding and compaction by the pressing method was used for the construction of the panels. The physical properties of the composites were evaluated by the determination of their relative density, effective absorption, and percentage of swelling. In order to evaluate the mechanical properties, tensile, compression, and three-point static bending tests were performed. Panels made with fibers treated with methane cold plasma exhibited a notable reduction in the effective absorption capacity, greater dimensional stability, and better mechanical performance.

Determinants of bone damage: An ex-vivo study on porcine vertebrae.

Bone’s resistance to fracture depends on several factors, such as bone mass, microarchitecture, and tissue material properties. The clinical assessment of bone strength is generally performed by Dual-X Ray Photon Absorptiometry (DXA), measuring bone mineral density (BMD) and trabecular bone score (TBS). Although it is considered the major predictor of bone strength, BMD only accounts for about 70% of fragility fractures, while the remaining 30% could be described by bone “quality” impairment parameters, mainly related to tissue microarchitecture. The assessment of bone microarchitecture generally requires more invasive techniques, which are not applicable in routine clinical practice, or X-Ray based imaging techniques, requiring a longer post-processing. Another important aspect is the presence of local damage in the bony tissue that may also affect the prediction of bone strength and fracture risk. To provide a more comprehensive analysis of bone quality and quantity, and to assess the effect of damage, here we adopt a framework that includes clinical, morphological, and mechanical analyses, carried out by means of DXA, μCT and mechanical compressive testing, respectively. This study has been carried out on trabecular bones, taken from porcine trabecular vertebrae, for the similarity with human lumbar spine. This study confirms that no single method can provide a complete characterization of bone tissue, and the combination of complementary characterization techniques is required for an accurate and exhaustive description of bone status. BMD and TBS have shown to be complementary parameters to assess bone strength, the former assessing the bone quantity and resistance to damage, and the latter the bone quality and the presence of damage accumulation without being able to predict the risk of fracture.

Design and Characterization of Edible Soft Robotic Candy Actuators

ABSTRACTOne of the goals of soft robotics is the ability to interface with the human body. Traditionally, silicone materials have dominated the field of soft robotics. In order to shift to materials that are more compatible with the body, developments will have to be made into biodegradable and biocompatible soft robots. This investigation focused on developing gummy actuators which are biodegradable, edible, and tasty. Creating biodegradable and edible actuators can be both sold as an interactive candy product and also inform the design of implantable soft robotic devices. First, commercially available gelatin-based candies were recast into pneumatic actuators utilizing molds. Edible robotic devices were pneumatically actuated repeatedly (up to n=8 actuations) using a 150 psi power inflator. To improve upon the properties of actuators formed from commercially available candy, a novel gelatin-based formulation, termed the “Fordmula” was also developed and used to create functional actuators. To investigate the mechanics and functionality of the recast gummy material and the Fordmula, compression testing and biodegradation studies were performed. Mechanical compression tests showed that recast gummy materials had similar properties to commercially available candies and at low strain had similar behavior to traditional silicone materials. Degradation studies showed that actuation was possible within 15 minutes in a biologically relevant solution followed by complete dissolution of the actuator afterwards. A taste test with elementary aged children demonstrated the fun, edible, and educational appeal of the candy actuators. Edible actuator development was an entry and winning submission in the High School Division of the Soft Robotics Toolkit Design Competition hosted by Harvard University. Demonstration of edible soft robotic actuators created by middle and high school aged students shows the applicability of the Soft Robotics Toolkit for K12 STEM education.

Preparation, characterization and in vitro test of composites poly-lactic acid/hydroxyapatite scaffolds for bone tissue engineering

In this work, the possibility to produce composite Poly-L-lactic acid (PLLA)/Hydroxyapatite (HA) porous scaffolds via Thermally Induced Phase Separation (TIPS) for bone tissue engineering applications was investigated. Several PLLA/HA wt/wt ratios (95/5, 90/10, 70/30, 50/50, 34/66) were tested and the as-obtained scaffolds were characterized via Scanning Electron Microscopy, Wide Angle X-Ray Diffraction, Thermogravimetric analysis, Gas Pycnometry, Differential Scanning Calorimetry and mechanical compression test. Morphological analysis revealed an open structure with interconnected pores and HA particles embedded in the polymer matrix. Finally, cell cultures were carried out into the composite scaffolds in order to evaluate the effect of HA on the proliferation and differentiation of osteoblastic cells, showing a higher alkaline phosphatase activity on composite scaffolds compared to neat PLLA ones.

Analysis and validation of correlation curves between sclerometry and compression tests for the evaluation of compressive strength of concretes

Abstract The present work consists in obtaining correlation curves between compressive tests and sclerometry tests from an extensive experimental program comprising 630 concrete cylindrical samples cast in laboratory, employing materials and methods available in Brazil. The concretes, with compressive strengths ranging from 20~MPa to 50~MPa, were submitted to sclerometry tests and mechanical compressive tests. The results were used to obtain correlation curves. which were adopted in measurements of structural elements molded in a construction site, indicating that the curves provided by the equipment manufacturer are not suitable for the material in study. This is the first stage of a broader study aiming to contribute to the improvement of the Brazilian code regulating the application of the sclerometry to obtain concrete compressive strength.

<b>Mechanical properties of the rachis from macaw palm bunche

Numerical implementation methods such as the finite element method can be used in machine design to study the dynamic behavior of the plant. Input parameters for using the finite element method should be set based on the geometrical, physical and mechanical system under study. Thus, the aim of this study was to determine the mechanical properties of the rachis of macaw palm in the green maturation stage at an age of 180 days and at fruit maturation. The water content was calculated using the oven method of 105 ± 3°C for 24 hours. The modulus of elasticity for the rachis was determined by means of mechanical compression testing. The Poisson's ratios were determined from the results of the longitudinal and transverse deformation of rachis test bodies. The shear tests were performed in two scenarios. In the first one, a blade was used without a tensioner, and in the second scenario, a blade was fixed with a tensioner, characterized by a chamfer at 45°. It was concluded that the modulus of elasticity of macaw palm rachis in the green maturity stage was higher than the values for the mature stage of ripeness.

Measuring orthotropic bending stiffness components of Pinus pinaster by the virtual fields method

Orthotropic stiffness components of Pinus pinaster Ait. wood are simultaneously determined by means of a heterogeneous plate bending test. The proposed inverse identification approach couples full-field slope measurements provided by deflectometry with the virtual fields methods. Wooden plates oriented in the longitudinal–radial and longitudinal–tangential material planes were manufactured. A procedure was implemented to allow suitable specular reflective coating of the wooden plates, required in the deflectometry technique. Reconstructed curvature fields, applied load and plate dimensions were input in virtual fields methods for material parameter identification, assuming Kirchhoff–Love classical plate theory. Several virtual fields and load cases were analysed to address the identifiability of the method. The values of the orthotropic elastic constants obtained from the proposed approach were found in good agreement with regard to reference ones for the same species and determined from classical tensile, compression and shear mechanical tests.

Measuring bone stiffness using spherical indentation.

ObjectivesBone material properties are a major determinant of bone health in older age, both in terms of fracture risk and implant fixation, in orthopaedics and dentistry. Bone is an anisotropic and hierarchical material so its measured material properties depend upon the scale of metric used. The scale used should reflect the clinical problem, whether it is fracture risk, a whole bone problem, or implant stability, at the millimetre-scale. Indentation, an engineering technique involving pressing a hard-tipped material into another material with a known force, may be able to assess bone stiffness at the millimetre-scale (the apparent elastic modulus). We aimed to investigate whether spherical-tip indentation could reliably measure the apparent elastic modulus of human cortical bone.Materials and methodsCortical bone samples were retrieved from the femoral necks of nineteen patients undergoing total hip replacement surgery (10 females, 9 males, mean age: 69 years). The samples underwent indentation using a 1.5 mm diameter, ruby, spherical indenter tip, with sixty indentations per patient sample, across six locations on the bone surfaces, with ten repeated indentations at each of the six locations. The samples then underwent mechanical compression testing. The repeatability of indentation measurements of elastic modulus was assessed using the co-efficient of repeatability and the correlation between the bone elastic modulus measured by indentation and compression testing was analysed by least-squares regression.ResultsIn total, 1140 indentations in total were performed. Indentation was found to be repeatable for indentations performed at the same locations on the bone samples with a mean co-efficient of repeatability of 0.4 GigaPascals (GPa), confidence interval (C.I): 0.33–0.42 GPa. There was variation in the indentation modulus results between different locations on the bone samples (mean co-efficient of repeatability: 3.1 GPa, C.I: 2.2–3.90 GPa). No clear correlation was observed between indentation and compression values of bone elastic modulus (r = 0.33, p = 0.17). The mean apparent elastic modulus obtained by spherical indentation was 9.9 GPa, the standard deviation for each indent cycle was 0.11 GPa, and the standard deviation between locations on the same sample was 1.01 GPa. The mean compression apparent elastic modulus was 4.42 GPa, standard deviation 1.02 GPa.DiscussionSpherical-tip indentation was found to be a repeatable test for measuring the elastic modulus of human cortical bone, demonstrated by a low co-efficient of repeatability in this study. It could not, however, reliably predict cortical bone elastic modulus determined by platens compression testing in this study. This may be due to indentation only probing mechanical properties at the micro-scale while platens compression testing assesses millimetre length-scale properties. Improvements to the testing technique, including the use of a larger diameter spherical indenter tip, may improve the measurement of bone stiffness at the millimetre scale and should be investigated further.

Morphology, mechanical strength and degradation of polyhydroxyalkanoate scaffolds

Tissue engineering (TE) seeks to improve the unsatisfactory development of implants and medical procedures to solve bone and cartilage injuries. TE aims at regenerating tissues using cell growth platforms (scaffolds), which may consist of natural polymers such as polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA). PHA is an innovative material useful in medical applications due to its degradation capability and bacterial origin that allows large-scale production and control final properties. In this research, we developed commercial PHA scaffolds using the lyophilization technique with a factorial experimental design. We used dichloromethane as PHA solvent, tergitol as surfactant, and liquid nitrogen (N2) for the freezing process. We characterized the PHA by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA); and the scaffolds by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and mechanical compression and hydrolysis degradation tests. The characterization of the PHA indicated that the material is a mixture of PHA and polylactic acid (PLA). The results showed a suitable pore distribution for migration of chondrocytes through the scaffold, in addition to a behavior similar to that of the articular cartilage, although it presented lower mechanical strength. Also, the scaffolds displayed mass loss in a non-linear way related to the percentage of PHA present in the sample. In conclusion, PHA scaffolds have a potential use in tissue engineering for restoring articular cartilage.

A versatile and injectable poly(methyl methacrylate) cement functionalized with quaternized chitosan-glycerophosphate/nanosized hydroxyapatite hydrogels

Injectable polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) bone cement is alluring because it allows a minimally invasive surgical approach, reducing both the cost of treatment and patient discomfort. However, several documented drawbacks have necessitated the design of a more versatile version with adorable properties for future application. In this study, to amend the bulk behavior of PMMA cement, we synthesized a modified version by combining PMMA with quaternized chitosan (N-(2-hydroxy)propyl-3-trimethylammonium chitosan chloride, HTCC)-based hydrogels loaded with nanosized hydroxyapatite (Nano-HA). Then, the physicochemical properties, antimicrobial properties, remineralization capacity and mechanical performance changes under imitated physiological conditions were tested for these cements using a type K thermocouple, scanning electron microscope (SEM), microcomputed tomography (μ-CT), calcium ion test kit and mechanical compression tests. The results demonstrated that the HTCC-GP thermosensitive hydrogel generated interconnected pores, lower the Tmax value, lengthened the working time, developed appropriate mechanical properties and imparted excellent antibacterial activity to the cement. The Nano-HA particles engendered improved biomineralization ability of the cements without adversely influencing the mechanical performance. Hence, these results indicated that the injectable and multifunctional cement resulting from the p-PMMA/HTCC-GP/Nano-HA combination grips rosy prospect for future applications in bone reconstruction.

In vitro study of a modified sagittal split osteotomy fixation technique of the mandible: a mechanical test

This study was performed to evaluate the compressive mechanical strength of rigid internal fixation (RIF) using 1.5-mm L-shaped plates fixed with monocortical screws in sagittal split osteotomy (SSO). Thirty synthetic hemimandibles, which had all undergone a 5-mm advancement, were divided into three groups: three 12-mm bicortical titanium screws were placed in an inverted L pattern in group A; one straight 2.0-mm system spaced titanium plate fixed with four 5-mm monocortical screws was used in group B; two 1.5-mm system L-shaped titanium plates, each fixed with four 5-mm monocortical screws, were used in group C. The models were subjected to compressive and progressive mechanical tests with forces applied in the area between the second premolar and first molar to verify resistance in Newtons (N). A displacement speed of 1mm/min was applied, with a maximum 10mm displacement of the distal segment or until disruption of the fixation. The deformity and/or eventual rupture of the plates were evaluated, and consequently their technical stability was determined. The results showed that the modified fixation technique tested in this study on synthetic mandibles resulted in adequate stability and superior mechanical behaviour compared to simulated osteosynthesis with the use of a straight 2.0-mm titanium plate.

Characterization and application of size-sorted zonal chondrocytes for articular cartilage regeneration

Current clinical approaches for articular cartilage repair have not been able to restore the tissue with zonal architecture, and its biomechanical and functional properties. Mimicking the zonal organization of articular cartilage in neo-tissue by implanting zonal chondrocyte subpopulations in multilayer construct could enhance the functionality of the graft, engineering of stratified tissue has not yet been realized due to lack of efficient and specific zonal chondrocyte isolation protocol. We show that by using a spiral microchannel device, the superficial, middle and deep zone chondrocytes can be separated based on cell size, and enriched from full thickness porcine cartilage in a high-throughput, label-free manner. The size-sorted cells show zone-specific characteristics in RT-PCR analysis of zonal cartilage markers. Both freshly sorted and two-passage expanded zonal chondrocytes formed cartilage tissue in 3D hydrogel, bearing respective zonal characteristics, indicated by RT-PCR, histology, extracellular matrix proteins, and mechanical compression test. In the proof-of-concept in vivo study using a rodent cartilage defect model, the size-sorted zonal chondrocytes when delivered in bi-layered hydrogel construct, facilitated better cartilage repair with mechanically enhanced cartilage tissue, in comparison to conventional chondrocytes implantation. This study provides an effective approach to obtain large numbers of zonal chondrocytes, and demonstrates the translational potential of stratified zonal chondrocyte implantation for clinical repair of critical size cartilage defects.

Effects of three types of modified atmospheric packaging on the physicochemical properties of selected glutinous rice

The effect of modified atmospheric packaging (MAP) on the physicochemical properties of selected glutinous (Thadokkham-8 and Thadokkham-11) rice was studied and compared with a non-glutinous rice (Doongara). The freshly harvested/milled grains were packed in four different MAP conditions viz. control, vacuum, CO2 and N2 for 12 months at room temperature (23 ± 1 °C). Gas (N2 or CO2) was flushed in aluminum bags at the pressure of 300 kPa for 3 s and subsequently hermetically sealed. Vacuum packaging was done at −100 kPa. Results showed that ageing induced changes in the starch granules were less prominent in vacuum and/or MAP samples using CO2 or N2. Surface analysis showed that control storage significantly reduced the percentage of lipids and increased the percentage of proteins on the surface in all selected varieties. N2 and CO2 storage of TDK8 and DG slowed down the shift of properties of macromolecules and maintained the surface starch/proteins/lipids ratios during 6 months of storage. Moreover, the grains stored in vacuum maintained the lipids with lower proportion of proteins exposed to the surface after cooking. N2 and CO2 induced increase in pasting temperature but significant reduction in final viscosity when compared to control. The findings correlated well with thermal analysis. The in situ Thermal Mechanical Compression Test (TMCT) device cooking and texture analysis revealed that modified storage slightly slowed the ageing induced changes in the cooking quality and stickiness of glutinous rice. Among all storage conditions used vacuum was relatively the best to maintain the quality of the grain.