Wild Boar Meat Research Articles

The more you know: The equivocal effects of prior knowledge on preferences for hunted vs. farmed wild boar meat

Much of the so-called ‘wild’ or ‘game’ meat bought these days is actually farmed (not hunted), and current legislation does not require marketers to reveal the production method. What would consumers make of this distinction if they knew? We explore the roles of objective and subjective prior knowledge in determining consumer preferences for wild boar (Sus scrofa) sausage produced using meat from hunting, farming or an unspecified production method. A discrete choice experiment that includes two tests and corresponding self-evaluations reveals that farmed meat is the most preferred type, closely followed by hunted meat, while meat from an unspecified production method is clearly the least preferred. Objective knowledge about hunting is positively related to preferences for hunted meat, while the opposite is true for the effect of prior knowledge about farming on preferences for farmed meat. Finally, subjective knowledge is not a reliable predictor of preferences for either hunted or farmed meat.

Proteolytic Lactococcus lactis and Lipolytic Enterococcus durans of Dairy Origin as Meat Functional Starter Cultures.

SUMMARYResearch backgroundAs fermentation is an integral feature of both, dry sausage and cheese production, this has led to the evaluation of bacterial cultures Lactococcus lactis ssp. cremoris (LL8307) and Enterococcus durans (ED0207) originally isolated from artisanal Croatian hard type cheese to diversify the range of flavours of dry fermented sausages and to increase their microbiological safety. Both strains were chosen for their high or medium acidifying, proteolytic and/or lipolytic activity and bioprotective potential after step-by-step selection of wild isolates. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the survival rate of selected starter cultures in wild boar meat sausages during the ripening period of 40 days at a local small-scale facility under artisanal conditions as well as their influence on sausage quality parameters.Experimental approachSafety, biotechnological and probiotic properties of twenty-three enterococcal and lactococcal isolates of dairy origin were studied. Based on the results, two best candidates were selected and added to the meat batter during the artisanal wild boar meat sausage preparation where their survival rate, effect on physicochemical, microbiological and sensorial properties and histamine content were evaluated.Results and conclusionsAs revealed by repetitive element-polymerase chain reaction (rep-PCR), native starter cultures survived up to 15 days of ripening and were either absent from (LL8307) or reduced by 80% (ED0207) in final products. The application of native starter cultures rapidly decreased pH (p<0.05), leading to the significantly lower load of E. coli, coliforms and Enterobacteriaceae in ready-to-eat sausages prepared by the addition of starter cultures (3.04-3.94 log CFU/g) than in the control (3.88-5.00 log CFU/g). Analysis of hedonic test data revealed that some of the sensory traits (odour, flavour, juiciness) of treatments with starter cultures were highly liked by the higher percentage of consumers. The results suggest that these starter cultures would represent a valuable tool to improve the homogeneity of artisanal manufacture and hygienic quality of fermented sausages and can be safely used for food application.Novelty and ccientific contributionThis is the first study to explore in depth the biotechnological potential of bacterial cultures isolated from artisanal Croatian cheese as functional starter cultures for high-quality game meat sausage production.

Wild Boar Meat as a Sustainable Substitute for Pork: A Mixed Methods Approach

Sensory analysis is unusual in sustainability research, although it can offer a neoteric aspect of nature and wild animals’ perception. The study’s objective was to identify consumers’ attitudes towards plant and animal products from wild and conventional foods and put these findings into a broader social context. A blind sensory evaluation with 80 semi-trained assessors was used, segmented by gender, age, education, income, place of origin, family status, number of children, and willingness to pay. Wild boar (Sus scrofa) was chosen as an example of an overpopulated animal species occurring in the wild, which could be considered a partial substitute for pork. Statistical testing in these blind evaluations proved that wild boar meat is not considered less tasty. Therefore, wild boar meat could represent a partial substitute, complementing pork, on which consumers are willing to spend the same amount of money. Despite the mostly indifferent sensory evaluation, focus group responses showed considerable barriers to wild food. This paper concludes that possible educational and popularizing procedures are presented, including forest pedagogy, eliminating consumers’ prejudices. A mixed-methods approach within quantitative and qualitative methodology was chosen.

First nationwide survey of the seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in wild boars in Japan.

The increase in some wildlife species is of global concern. The utilization of wildlife meat as food and feed represents a potential source of food-borne pathogens; this is particularly a potential concern for the use of wild board as a food source in Japan. Regarding food safety and an animal infectious disease control, however, little is known about the infection level of zoonotic pathogens including Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) in wild boar populations in their natural habitats in Japan. A total of 1279 blood samples from 41 prefectures were collected from apparently healthy wild boars during the three hunting periods (September to February) of 2014-2015, 2015-2016, and 2017-2018. Out of these sera, 461 samples tested positive by a commercial indirect ELISA for T. gondii, and the total apparent and adjusted true seroprevalence were estimated to 36.0% (95% confidence interval [CI], 33.4-38.7) and 31.3% (95% CI, 33.1-38.9), respectively. The seroprevalence was significantly higher in yearlings and adults than in piglets (P < 0.05); however, no significant difference according to gender was noted. These results indicate the importance of adequate heating of wild boar meat before consumption to prevent transmission of T. gondii to humans. Furthermore, freezing meat for several days before cooking is recommended to reduce the risk of infection. In addition, although the incidence of toxoplasmosis in pig farms is relatively low in Japan, biosecurity measures against the felids and the varied intermediate hosts should be strengthened, especially, at the farms located in the wild boar habitats to prevent livestock infection.

Abdominal paragonimiasis after consumption of wild boar meat

A 60-year-old man presented with a 10-day history of abdominal and back pain. Abdominal contrast-enhanced computed tomography showed an intraperitoneal abscess (Figure 1). Antibiotic therapy with flomoxef resulted in reduced size but not the total disappearance of the abscess. Laparoscopic surgery was performed. In addition to the mass-like structure in the greater omentum (Figure 2A), numerous white nodules were found on the peritoneum (Figure 2B). Pathological examination showed granulomatous inflammation around parasite eggs (Figure 2C and D). The patient had eaten raw wild boar meat 7 months ago. Total serum immunoglobulin E was elevated (433.9 IU/mL), but total white blood cell and eosinophil counts were within the reference intervals. Serological examination revealed a positive reaction to Paragonimus antigens. A diagnosis of abdominal paragonimiasis was made. The patient’s symptoms resolved after the surgery. Praziquantel (75 mg/kg/daily for 3 consecutive days) was administered postoperatively. The patient has been free from symptoms for 3 months of follow-up.Figure 2Laparoscopic view of a mass-like structure (main lesion) with the long diameter of about 30 mm in the greater omentum (A), with white nodules (∼1 mm in diameter) observed on the surface of the peritoneum (B); low-power (C) and high-power (D) microscopic views of the main lesion containing parasite eggs (78 × 49 μm in average size) (Hematoxylin & eosin staining; scale bars: 500 and 50 μm, respectively).View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT) Although the adult Paragonimus primarily inhabits the lung, it may also reach various ectopic sites, including the greater omentum (Jeong et al., 2002Jeong W.K. Kim Y. Kim Y.S. Park D.W. Park C.K. Baek H.K. et al.Heterotopic paragonimiasis in the omentum.J Comput Assist Tomogr. 2002; 26: 1019-1021Crossref PubMed Scopus (10) Google Scholar), and cause extrapulmonary paragonimiasis. Wild boar meat is 1 of 2 major food sources of infection, as in this case, the other is freshwater crabs in Japan (Nagayasu et al., 2015Nagayasu E. Yoshida A. Hombu A. Horii Y. Maruyama H. Paragonimiasis in Japan: a twelve-year retrospective case review (2001-2012).Intern Med. 2015; 54: 179-186Crossref PubMed Scopus (46) Google Scholar). On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.

Hepatitis E Virus Occurrence in Pigs Slaughtered in Italy.

Simple SummaryHepatitis E is now recognized as an emerging zoonotic disease in Europe caused by an RNA virus (HEV) and foodborne is the main route of transmission. Human cases have been linked to the consumption of contaminated pig liver sausages, raw venison, or undercooked wild boar meat. The zoonotic genotype HEV-3 is widespread in pigs at farm level but little information is available on the occurrence of HEV-positive pigs at the slaughterhouse. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of HEV-positive pigs during slaughtering, to understand which biological samples (feces and organs) were more frequently HEV positive. Our results showed that pigs positive for HEV can be slaughtered and that the percentage of positive animals depends on the age of animals. The other main result is the presence of the virus in the plasma of animals, which may contribute to the contamination of meat (muscle). Nevertheless, muscles are rarely contaminated by HEV-RNA compared to liver, which is the organ of replication.In Europe, foodborne transmission has been clearly associated to sporadic cases and small clusters of hepatitis E in humans linked to the consumption of contaminated pig liver sausages, raw venison, or undercooked wild boar meat. In Europe, zoonotic HEV-genotype 3 strains are widespread in pig farms but little information is available on the prevalence of HEV positive pigs at slaughterhouse. In the present study, the prevalence of HEV-RNA positive pigs was assessed on 585 animals from 4 abattoirs located across Italy. Twenty-one pigs (3.6%) tested positive for HEV in either feces or liver by real-time RT-PCR. In these 21 pigs, eight diaphragm muscles resulted positive for HEV-RNA. Among animals collected in one abattoir, 4 out of 91 plasma tested positive for HEV-RNA. ELISA tests for the detection of total antibodies against HEV showed a high seroprevalence (76.8%), confirming the frequent exposure of pigs to the virus. The phylogenetic analyses conducted on sequences of both ORF1 and ORF2 fragments, shows the circulation of HEV-3c and of a novel unclassified subtype. This study provides information on HEV occurrence in pigs at the slaughterhouse, confirming that muscles are rarely contaminated by HEV-RNA compared to liver, which is the most frequently positive for HEV.

Prevalence of ESβL, AmpC and Colistin-Resistant E. coli in Meat: A Comparison between Pork and Wild Boar.

A global increase in Escherichia coli (E. coli) resistant to cephalosporins (extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESβLs) and AmpC β-lactamases) has been recorded in the last 20 years. Similarly, several studies have reported the spread of colistin resistance in Enterobacteriaceae isolated from food and the environment. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the prevalence of ESβL, AmpC and colistin-resistant E. coli isolated from pork and wild boar meat products in the Emilia Romagna region (North Italy). The isolates were analysed phenotypically (considering both resistant and intermediate profiles) and genotypically. The prevalence of genotypically confirmed ESβL and AmpC E. coli was higher in pork meat products (ESβL = 11.1% vs. AmpC = 0.3%) compared to wild boar meat (ESβL = 6.5% vs. AmpC = 0%). Intermediate profiles for cefotaxime (CTX) and ceftazidime (CAZ) were genotypically confirmed as ESβL in pork meat isolates but not for wild boar. Four E. coli from wild boar meat were resistant to colistin but did not harbour the mcr-1 gene. E. coli isolated from wild boar meat seem to show aspecific antimicrobial resistance mechanisms for cephalosporins and colistin. The prevalence of resistant isolates found in wild boar is less alarming than in pork from farmed domestic pigs. However, the potential risk to consumers of these meat products will require further investigations.

Trichinella britovi infection in wild boar in Portugal.

Trichinella spp. infection occurs when a host ingests muscle tissue containing infective larvae (L1 stage). Wild boar meat and its products represent the second largest source of human trichinellosis worldwide. For this reason, and since that in Portugal wild boar is the most hunted large game specie, the laboratory of Technology, Quality and Food Safety (TQFS) from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro created a free service to test wild boar meat for Trichinella spp. From December 2015 to February 2020, and 857 samples were analysed. From those, the majority (719/857, 83.9%) were tested after October 2018 when a specific national legislation came into force, demanding that meat from wild boar hunted in a defined risk area should be tested for Trichinella spp. Under TQFS laboratory activity, in January 2020, a positive case was identified, being the first molecular confirmation of Trichinella britovi infection in wild boar in Portugal. Additionally to this activity, in 2019, a questionnaire was submitted to 100 hunters to acquire information about wild boar meat usage and consumption behaviours. From the total respondents, 86% declared they intended to use meat for private consumption. Of those, 93% also stated that have sold part of the meat and/or homemade sausages, the majority (80%) without prior testing for Trichinella spp., as required by EU Regulation. These results alert the hunters to a risk for human infection, which could be extended to outside the hunter's household. Given the actual epidemiological situation, it should be emphasized that testing for Trichinella spp. in wild boar meat should be maintained and reinforced, particularly in the risk area. The results presented in this report strongly support the importance of specific national legislation to mitigate the risk of trichinellosis due to consumption of non-tested wild boar meat.

Disentangling Individual Phases in the Hunted vs. Farmed Meat Supply Chain: Exploring Hunters' Perceptions in Italy.

The growing body of literature concerning the hunted wild game meat (HWGM) supply chain is mainly focused on the final consumer, while little is known about upstream production processes. Even though the hunter plays a central role here, it is not well understood how hunters themselves perceive their role in the various phases of the production process. The present study explores Italian hunters’ perception of the HWGM supply chain and compares it to their perception towards the conventional farmed meat supply chain. We distinguish several phases of this production process and find that the final phase related to on-site game dressing is considered problematic, perhaps because hunters perceive themselves as less skilled than professional butchers. The results, in fact, show that hunters prefer hunted products over farmed meat, but that they consider hunted wild boar meat less safe compared to farmed pork. Findings from this study provide a rare glimpse from the inside of the supply chain and reveals the needs for a broad risk assessment analysis on the Italian game meat supply chain. Considering the development of the Italian emerging market of the HWGM, our results also highlight the relevance of training activities on hunters in order to increase the safety and quality of the final product.

Serological Detection of Trichinellosis among Suspected wild Boar Meat Consumers in North and Northeast of Iran

Background:Trichinellosis is a foodborne zoonosis disease worldwide. Humans acquire infection by ingesting raw or uncooked animal flesh containing viable Trichinella larvae. The most common reservoirs of this helminth are pigs and wild boars. In northern Iran, hunting and consuming wild boars meat by some communities, including ethnic Armenians, may expose them to trichinellosis. Here, we investigated anti-Trichinella IgG antibodies in high-risk individuals in northeastern Iran.Methods:From Mar to Aug 2020, we collected 189 blood samples from individuals with a history of wild boar meat consumption and examined the sera for anti-Trichinella IgG antibodies using a commercial ELISA kit (NovaTec Immunodiagnostica GmbH, Germany). Sera from 30 individuals with no history of eating wild boar meat was used to determine the range of actual negative values and possible cross-reactivity with other similar antigens.Results:Of the 189 participants, 5 (2.6%) had anti-Trichinella IgG antibodies (OD, 1.176 ±0.154). None of the 30 negative controls became positive (OD, 0.198 ± 0.044). The age, gender, occupation, and education showed no significant association with Trichinella seropositivity rate (P>0.05). All five seropositive cases were among 112 individuals (4.46% seropositivity) that resided in the western part of the study area, stretching from Behshar to Gorgan.Conclusion:Eating wild boar meat might expose individuals to trichinellosis in the north and northeast of Iran. Further studies with more individuals from different parts of the country and confirmation of the ELISA by additional tests like Western blot will give a more in-depth insight into human trichinellosis epidemiology in Iran.

Toxoplasma gondii infection in wild boars (Sus scrofa) from the State of São Paulo, Brazil: Serology, molecular characterization, and hunter's perception on toxoplasmosis.

The consumption of wild boar meat, common in many countries, became popular in Brazil after the hunting of these animals was authorized in 2013. The meat of these animals is often consumed by hunters and their social groups, and their offal is occasionally used as supplemental food in the diet of hunting dogs. Given the high frequency of foodborne diseases related to wild boar meat consumption in other countries, including toxoplasmosis, knowledge on these diseases is essential for risk assessment and elaboration of education campaigns for the exposed public. Thus, this study aimed diagnosing, isolating, and genotyping Toxoplasma gondii in hunted wild boars. For that, we obtained samples of serum and tissues (brain, tongue, diaphragm, and heart) from 26 wild boar hunted in three areas in São Paulo State, Brazil, based on convenience sampling strategy. The serum samples were submitted to the indirect immunofluorescence reaction test (IFAT) test while the tissue samples (n=22) were used to perform a bioassay in mice to isolate the parasite. The isolated samples were genetically characterized by PCR-RFLP with SAG1, 5' and 3' SAG2, alt.SAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22-8, c29-2, L358, PK1, and Apico markers. Questionnaires were also formulated and applied to wildlife hunters to assess knowledge about toxoplasmosis. The seroprevalence of T. gondii was 76.9% (20/26), with titers ranging from 16 to 1024. Viable parasites accounted for 4.5% (1/22) of the samples. The ToxoDB #6 genotype of TgJava1 alone was detected. Most interviewed hunters, 84.2% (16/19) consume game meat and a few of them (15.7%; 3/19) prefer undercooked meat. Also, 15.7% (3/19) of the hunters reported supplementing their hunting dogs' diet with wild boar meat and/or offal. As antibodies to T. gondii were detected in 76.9% (20/26) of the studied wild boars, we concluded that infection by T. gondii is frequent in wild boars used for human and animal consumption in the studied areas. Although genotype #6 is commonly found in Brazil in domestic animals, wild animals, and humans, causing everything from mild clinical symptoms to death, this study found, for the first time, the detection of this genotype in wild boars. These results also reaffirm the importance of these animals as a possible source of T. gondii infection for humans and domestic animals.

Meat Quality Parameters of Wild Boar and Commercial Pig Breeds

A b s t r a c t: In recent decades pork production has increased in Serbia, and pork is the most widely consumed meat. Pig meatquality is affected by several factors: breed, sex, production performance, stress adaptation, and factors related to animal management.The aim of this study was to compare the meat quality characteristics from wild boar and pig breeds improved by selection. Samples ofm. longissimus dorsi were obtained from three different pig breeds — Yorkshire, Landrace and wild boar. Chemical composition, pH,fatty acid profile, volatile compounds, color, and overall sensory meat quality were determined. Chemical composition, pH, fatty acidprofile, and volatile compounds differed significantly (p&lt;0.05) among the pig breeds. Yorkshire meat had the most favorable ratio ofunsaturated to saturated fatty acids and the highest nutritional value. On the other hand, wild boar meat had the lowest intramuscular fat content. Determined differences among different pig breeds indicated the impact of breed on meat quality of pork. The results ob-tained could be used to meet consumer’s needs regarding fatty acid composition and sensory properties of meat.

Infestation of wild boar meat from the Eastern Lublin province with Alaria mesocercariae

The study was aimed at assessment of the usefulness of a digestion method, a standard procedure for routine examination of wild boar meat for Trichinella, in detecting the presence of Distomum musculorum suis (DMS) in the population of wild boars from the Eastern Lublin province. The study material included 500 samples collected from the diaphragm pillars of 250 young boars (6-12 months) and 250 boars above one year of age. First, the meat was tested with the digestion method that is a referential procedure for trichinosis detection. Then, the samples in which over ten mesocercariae were found were assessed with an Alaria-Migration Technique (AMT). The digestion method confirmed the presence of Alaria mesocercariae in 42 carcasses of young boars (16.8 %) and 117 samples of animals older than one year (46.8 %). The study showed a diversified intensity of the parasite presence in the carcasses of individual animals. The invasion intensity ranged from 1 to 18 parasites in 50 g of meat in the young animals, and from 1 to 22 larvae in the older individuals. The carcasses of eight young and thirty two older animals contained over 10 parasites per 50 g of the meat, which accounted for 3.2 % and 12.8 % animals per respective age group. AMT analysis also indicated variable intensity of the parasite infestation, amounting to 32-57 mesocercariae in young animals and 31-71 larvae in the older ones. The study demonstrated an almost three times higher efficiency of the AMT method than the digestion method, which made us conclude that the former should be recommended for Alaria detection. The digestion method used for routine detection of Trichinella, despite its lower accuracy in diagnosing Alaria mesocercariae, can be also employed for the detection of DMS in the case of intensive parasite infection. Our study confirmed high prevalence of the parasite among wild boars from the Eastern Lublin Province. We also found that the invasion intensity depended on the animal age and was higher in older individuals. Considering the zoonotic nature of alariosis and its frequency, it poses an increasingly common problem for official veterinarians during the sanitary and veterinary evaluation of wild boar meat.

Studi Kasus: Pemalsuan Daging Sapi dengan Daging Babi Hutan di Kota Bogor

The adulteration of beef using wild boar meat in the city of Bogor has been a serious concern in the society. Monitoring and surveillance of beef products are needed to ensure the halal of animal products and to prevent the transmission risk of zoonotic diseases from wild boar meat to humans. The purpose of this study was to analyse the data of Dinas Pertanian Kota Bogor related to meat adulteration in 2013-2017. The case study approach was used in this research by conducting a collection of primary and secondary data. The primary data obtained from an indepth interview with the chief of veterinary public health, processing, and marketing of livestock products of Dinas Pertanian Kota Bogor. The secondary data were obtained from monitoring and surveillance report of Dinas Pertanian Kota Bogor in 2013-2017. The results showed that 7.86% (3/33 samples) of beef samples contained wild boar meat during the 2013-2017 period. The adulterated beef was found mainly from the meat kiosks in traditional markets. In conclusion, monitoring and surveillance related to meat adulteration problem is needed to be improved especially in the traditional market.

Ochratoxin A Levels in Tissues of Wild Boars (Sus scrofa) from Northern Italy.

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin produced by Aspergillus and Penicillium, capable of contaminating several foodstuffs. OTA damages primarily the kidneys, and is suspected to be a carcinogenic substance, thus maximum levels for OTA in foodstuffs have been established in the EU. Italian Ministry of Health suggested a maximum level of 1 μg/kg OTA in pork meat and derived products. In this study, OTA concentrations in liver, kidney, and muscle of 64 wild boars (Sus scrofa) killed in two areas (area A and B) of Parma province (northern Italy), characterized by different habitat types, were assessed by HPLC-FLD technique. OTA was detected in 54% liver, 52% kidney, and 16% muscle samples. OTA levels were significantly higher in liver and kidney compared with muscle, and were above 1 μg/kg in 19 liver, 17 kidney, and 4 muscle samples. OTA levels in wild boars from area A resulted significantly higher with respect to those from area B, suggesting an environmental influence on OTA contamination in wild boars. This study seems to confirm that wild boar meat is a potential source of OTA, thus monitoring the presence of this mycotoxin in game meat might be recommended to prevent risks for human health.

The wild boar (Sus scrofa, Linnaeus, 1758) as an important reservoir host for Alaria alata in the Baltic region and potential risk of infection in humans.

Alaria alata trematode is widely distributed throughout Europe and has a complex life cycle in which wild boar serve as a reservoir host. The primary aims of the present study are to establish the occurrence of A. alata mesocercariae in naturally infected wild boar in Latvia and to assess the risk for humans to acquire A. alata infection via consumption of wild boar meat. By summarizing long-term data using the Trichinella inspection method from 2014 to 2019, the overall A. alata prevalence was 8.3%, of which significantly higher A. alata prevalence was observed during the summer seasons. Additionally, 43.9% (n = 485) of wild boar were found to be infected with A. alata using Alaria mesocercariae migration technique. The present study indicates that the probability for humans to acquire A. alata mesocercariae is possible, yet improbable and varies from 0.2% to 2.2%. Most likely, it depends on both frequency of A. alata presence in wild boar population and of a method of preparing wild boar meat for consumption that will allow for the parasite inactivation.

Excretion of 19-norandrosterone after consumption of boar meat.

The consumption of the offal of noncastrated pigs can lead to the excretion of 19-norandrosterone (NorA) in urine of humans. In doping control, GC/C/IRMS is the method of choice to differentiate between an endogenous or exogenous origin of urinary NorA. In some cases, after the consumption of wild boar offal, the δ13 C values of urinary NorA fulfill the criteria of an adverse analytical finding due to differing food sources of boar and consumer. However, consumption of wild boar's offal is not very common in Germany, and thus, the occurrence of such an analytical finding is unlikely. In contrast, the commerce with wild boar meat has increased in Germany within the last years. Up to 20,000 tons of wild boar meat are annually consumed. In order to probe for the probability of the occurrence of urinary NorA after consumption of wild boar meat, human urine samples were tested following the ingestion of commercially available game. In approximately half of the urine samples, traces of NorA were detected postadministration of 200 to 400 g boar meat. The highest urinary concentration was 2.9 ng/ml, and significant amounts were detected up to 9 h after the meal. δ13 C values ranged from -18.5‰ to -23.5‰, which would have led to at least two adverse analytical findings if the samples were collected in an antidoping context. IRMS analysis on German boar tissue samples showed that δ13 C values for wild boar's steroids are unpredictable and may vary seasonally.

Occurrence of Alaria alata in wild boars (Sus scrofa) in Poland and detection of genetic variability between isolates

Alaria alata is a trematode included among several emerging zoonotic parasites. The mesocercarial larval stage of A. alata named Distomum musculorum suis (DMS) may potentially be infective for humans. In the past, DMS was often observed in wild boar meat during the official Trichinella inspection by artificial digestion before a more specific and effective detection method, the A. alata mesocercariae migration technique (AMT), was introduced. In the present study, the AMT method was used to screen 3589 tissue samples collected from wild boars hunted in Poland during the 2015–2019 period. The survey mainly focused on the southern part of Poland with the majority of samples coming from Małopolskie, Świętokrzyskie, and Dolnoślaskie provinces; samples from ten additional provinces were also included. The total prevalence was 4.2% with mean abundance of 4.7 DMS. Occurrence was dependent upon environmental conditions (i.e., wetland habitats and water reservoirs) rather than on sex of the host or season in which they were hunted. The recovered trematodes were identified as Alaria spp. according to their morphological features. Molecular analysis of 18S rDNA and COI genes confirmed the species identification to be A. alata and documented genetic variability among the isolates.

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) genotype 3 diversity: Identification of a novel HEV subtype in wild boar in Central Italy.

In the last decade in Europe, the number of autochthonous cases of hepatitis E has significantly increased. Most of the cases arise from foodborne infections caused by the zoonotic hepatitis E virus (HEV) genotypes HEV-3 and HEV-4. Several human cases have been linked to consumption of raw or undercooked animal products of both pork (liver sausages) and wild boar meat. In this study, the occurrence of HEV infection was investigated in 611 livers and 88 paired lungs from wild boars collected during the hunting seasons of 2016-2020 in the Umbria-Marche Apennines (Central Italy). Using real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, 15 liver samples (2.45%) and one lung sample were found to be positive for HEV RNA. The phylogenetic tree built on the partial ORF2 gene revealed that the detected HEV strains belonged to HEV-3f (n=5), HEV-3e (n=1) and HEV-3c (n=1) subtypes. Interestingly, 8 strains were genetically placed in a different cluster, further away from all other subtypes. To corroborate this finding, four complete genomes were obtained by next generation sequencing. The full genome of the HEV strains clustered together with another wild boar strain previously detected in Southern Italy in 2015 but the strains were divergent from all the HEV-3 strains classified in any subtype defined so far. Thus, these strains represent a novel subtype that might have originated in Italy, which we have tentatively named HEV-3n.

Applicability of a duplex and four singleplex real-time PCR assays for the qualitative and quantitative determination of wild boar and domestic pig meat in processed food products

Appropriate analytical methods are needed for the detection of food authentication. We investigated the applicability of a duplex real-time PCR assay targeting chromosome 1 and two singleplex real-time PCR assays targeting chromosome 9, both published recently, for the qualitative and quantitative determination of wild boar and domestic pig in processed food products. In addition, two singleplex real-time PCR assays targeting chromosome 7 were tested for their suitability to differentiate the two subspecies. Even by targeting the three genome loci, the probability of misclassification was not completely eliminated. Application of the real-time PCR assays to a total of 35 commercial meat products, including 22 goulash products, revealed that domestic pig DNA was frequently present, even in 14 out of 15 products declared to consist of 100% wild boar. Quantitative results obtained with the real-time PCR assays for wild boar (p < 0.001) and those for domestic pig (p < 0.001) were significantly different. However, the results obtained with the real-time PCR assays for wild boar (r = 0.673; p < 0.001) and those for domestic pig (r = 0.505; p = 0.002) were found to be significantly correlated. If the rules given in the paper are followed, the real-time PCR assays are applicable for routine analysis.